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Τρίτη 20 Νοεμβρίου 2012

Communist Party of China

Communist Party of China

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Communist Party of China
中国共产党
Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng
General SecretaryXi Jinping [1]
Politburo Standing CommitteeXi Jinping
Li Keqiang
Zhang Dejiang
Yu Zhengsheng
Liu Yunshan
Wang Qishan
Zhang Gaoli
FoundedJuly 1, 1921 (1st Party Congress)
August 1, 1920 (de facto)
HeadquartersZhongnanhai, Beijing
Youth wingCommunist Youth League of China
Young Pioneers of China
Membership (2010)80,269,000
IdeologyCommunism(de jure),
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics(de facto),
Deng Xiaoping Theory(de facto),
Maoism(de jure),
Three Represents(de facto),
Scientific Development Concept(de facto)
National People's Congress
2,099 / 2,987
Website
english.cpc.people.com.cn
Party flag
Flag of the Chinese Communist Party.svg
Politics of the People's Republic of China
Political parties
Elections
Communist Party of China
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese中国共产党
Traditional Chinese中国共產黨
Hanyu PinyinZhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng
Abbreviated name
Chinese中共
Tibetan name
Tibetanཀྲུང་གོ་གུང་ཁྲན་ཏང
Uyghur name
Uyghur
جۇڭگو كوممۇنىستىك پارتىيە
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
Communist parties
Hammer and sickle and red star
People's Republic of China
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
the People's Republic of China
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The Communist Party of China (CPC), also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although nominally it exists alongside the United Front,[2] a coalition of governing political parties, in practice, the CPC is the only party in the PRC,[3] maintaining a unitary government and centralizing the state, military, and media.[4] The legal power of the Communist Party is guaranteed by the national constitution, though due to the Party's Leninist roots, it stands above the law.[4][5] The current party leader is Xi Jinping[1], who holds the title of General Secretary of the Central Committee.
Since becoming an institution of the state, aside from official commitment to communism and Marxism-Leninism, the party also has de facto unrecognized factions including consumerist and neoliberal figures including business people on the right who effectively support capitalism, as well as factions on the left that oppose the right in the party, and other factions.[6]
The party was founded in July 1921 in Shanghai.[7][8][9] After a lengthy civil war, the CPC defeated its primary rival, the Kuomintang (KMT), and assumed full control of mainland China by 1949.[10] The Kuomintang retreated to the island of Taiwan, where it still remains to this day.
The party has fluctuated between periods of reformism and political conservatism throughout its history. Both before and after the founding of the PRC, the CPC's history is defined by various power struggles and ideological battles, including destructive socio-political movements such as the Cultural Revolution. At first a conventional member of the international Communist movement, the CPC broke with its counterpart in the Soviet Union over ideological differences in the 1960s. The Communist Party's ideology was redefined under Deng Xiaoping to incorporate principles of market economics, and the corresponding reforms enabled rapid and sustained economic growth.[11]
The CPC is the world's largest political party,[12] claiming over 80 million members[13] at the end of 2010 which constitutes about 6.0% of the total population of mainland China. The vast majority of military and civil officials are members of the Party.[14] Since 1978, the Communist Party has attempted to institutionalize transitions of power and consolidate its internal structure. The modern party stresses unity and avoids public conflict while practicing a pragmatic and open democratic centralism within the party structure.

Contents

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[edit] Organization

This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2010)
XVII Congress of the Communist Party of China held in 2007.
The party's organizational structure was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and rebuilt afterwards by Deng Xiaoping, who subsequently initiated "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and brought all state apparatuses back under the rule of the CPC.
Theoretically, the party's highest body is the National Congress of the Communist Party of China, which meets at least once every five years. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party which is detailed in the party constitution include:

[edit] Organizations under the Central Committee

Other central organizations directly under the Party Central Committee include:
In addition, there are numerous commissions and leading groups. Usually those commissions and leading groups have jurisdiction on both Party and State apparatus, and include ranking leaders up to the President of the People's Republic of China and the Premier of the State Council. The most important of them are:
Every five years, the Communist Party of China holds a National Congress. The latest happened on October 19, 2007. Formally, the Congress serves two functions: to approve changes to the Party constitution regarding policy and to elect a Central Committee, about 300 strong. The Central Committee in turn elects the Politburo. In practice, positions within the Central Committee and Politburo are determined before a Party Congress, and the main purpose of the Congress is to announce the party policies and vision for the direction of China in the following few years.
The party's central focus of power is the Politburo Standing Committee. The process for selecting Standing Committee members, as well as Politburo members, occurs behind the scenes in a process parallel to the National Congress. The new power structure is announced obliquely through the positioning of portraits in the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the Party. The number of Standing Committee members varies and has tended to increase over time. The Committee was expanded to nine at the 16th Party National Congress in 2009, before being reduced to 7 members at the Congress of 2012.
There are two other key organs of political power in the People's Republic of China: the formal government and the People's Liberation Army. The Party's main bodies to oversee the PLA are the Central Military Commission and the General Political Department.
There are, in addition to decision-making roles, advisory committees, including the People's Political Consultative Conference. During the 1980s and 1990s there was a Central Advisory Commission established by Deng Xiaoping which consisted of senior retired leaders, but with their death this has been abolished since 1992.

[edit] Factions

Political theorists have identified two groups within the Communist Party[16], a structure which has been called "one party, two factions".[17] The first is the "elitist coalition" or Shanghai clique which is composed mainly of officials who have risen from the more prosperous provinces. The second is the "populist coalition", the core of which are the tuanpai, or the "Youth League faction" which consists mainly of officials who have risen from the rural interior, through the Communist Youth League. Minor informal groupings include the reformist Qinghua clique, and the derogatorily termed Crown Prince Party of officials benefiting from nepotism. The interaction between the two main factions is largely complementary with each faction possessing a particular expertise and both committed to the continued rule of the Communist Party and not allowing intra-party factional politics to threaten party unity. It has been noted that party and government positions have been assigned to create a very careful balance between these two groupings.
Within his "one party, two factions" model, Li Cheng has noted that one should avoid labelling these two groupings with simplistic ideological labels, and that these two groupings do not act in a zero-sum, winner take all fashion. Neither group has the ability or will to dominate the other completely.[18]

[edit] Membership

The party was small at first, but grew intermittently through the 1920s. Twelve voting delegates were seated at the 1st National Congress in 1921, as well as at the 2nd (in 1922), when they represented 195 party members. By 1923, the 420 members were represented by 30 delegates. The 1925 4th Congress had 20 delegates representing 994 members; then real growth kicked in. The 5th Congress (held in April–May 1927 as the KMT was cracking down on communists) comprised 80 voting delegates representing 57,968 members.
It was on October 3, 1928 6th Congress that the now-familiar ‘full’ and ‘alternate’ structure originated, with 84 and 34 delegates, respectively. Membership was estimated at 40,000. In 1945, the 7th Congress had 547 full and 208 alternate delegates representing 1.21 million members, a ratio of one representative per 1,600 members as compared to 1:725 in 1927.
After the Party defeated the Nationalists, participation at National Party Congresses became much less representative. Each of the 1026 full and 107 alternate members represented 9,470 party members (10.73 million in total) at the 1956 8th Congress. Subsequent congresses held the number of participants down despite membership growing to more than 60 million by 2000.[19]

[edit] Discipline

Investigations and prosecutions of cadre who are suspect of corruption are conducted confidentially in a system run the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection which is separate from ordinary Chinese law enforcement and courts which are subject to influence by local cadre. According to The New York Times the system is called "shuanggui" and is greatly feared by corrupt party functionaries. According to The New York Times suspects are subjected to severe physical and psychological pressure. The system has resulted in successful investigation and prosecution of a number of corrupt cadre including some very powerful party officials. There is little sympathy by the Chinese public for corrupt officials who get caught up in the system, but also skepticism regarding its effectiveness.[20]

[edit] History

Location of the first Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in July 1921, in Xintiandi, former French Concession, Shanghai. Museum of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2010)
Main article: History of the Communist Party of China
The CPC has its origins in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, where radical political systems like anarchism and communism gained traction among Chinese intellectuals.[21] Stalin opposed the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang because he wanted to expand Soviet influence in the province.[22] The CPC's ideologies have significantly evolved since its founding and establishing political power in 1949. Mao Zedong's revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus based on China's social situations at the time. During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev, and later, Leonid Brezhnev. Since then Mao's peasant revolutionary vision and so-called "continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, giving way to the Cultural Revolution. This fusion of ideas became known officially as "Mao Zedong Thought", or Maoism outside of China. It represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the Soviet Union's "Marxist revisionism".
Following the death of Mao in 1976, however, the CPC under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping moved towards Socialism with Chinese characteristics and instituted Chinese economic reform.[23] In reversing some of Mao's "extreme-leftist" policies, Deng argued that a socialist country and the market economy model were not mutually exclusive. While asserting the political power of the Party itself, the change in policy generated significant economic growth.[24] The ideology itself, however, came into conflict on both sides of the spectrum with Maoists as well as progressive liberals, culminating with other social factors to cause the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests. Deng's vision for economic success and a new socialist market model became entrenched in the Party constitution in 1997 as Deng Xiaoping Theory.
Chinese communists celebrate Stalin's birthday, 1949
The "third generation" of leadership under Jiang Zemin, Zhu Rongji, and associates largely continued Deng's progressive economic vision while overseeing the re-emergence of Chinese nationalism in the 1990s. Nationalist sentiment has seemingly also evolved to become informally the part of the Party's guiding doctrine. As part of Jiang's nominal legacy, the CPC ratified the Three Represents into the 2003 revision of the Party Constitution as a "guiding ideology", encouraging the Party to represent "advanced productive forces, the progressive course of China's culture, and the fundamental interests of the people." There are various interpretations of the Three Represents. Most notably, the theory has legitimized the entry of private business owners and quasi-"bourgeois" elements into the party.
The insistent road of focusing almost exclusively on economic growth has led to a wide range of serious social problems. The CPC's "fourth generation" of leadership under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao, after taking power in 2003, attempted reversing such a trend by bringing forth an integrated ideology that tackled both social and economic concerns. This new ideology was known as the creation of a harmonious society using the Scientific Development Concept.
The degree of power the Party had on the state has gradually decreased as economic liberalizations progressed. The evolution of CPC ideology has gone through a number of defining changes that it no longer bears much resemblance to its founding principles. Some believe that the large amount of economic liberalization starting from the late 1970s to present, indicates that the CPC has transitioned to endorse economic neoliberalism.[25][26][27][28] In the 2000s, CPC leaders debated changing the party's name to remove the "Communist" label, but ultimately decided against it, fearing the emergence of a splinter Communist party.[29] The CPC's current policies are fiercely rejected as capitalist by most communists, especially anti-revisionists, and by adherents of the Chinese New Left from within the PRC.
The Communist Party of China comprises a single-party state form of government; however, there are parties other than the CPC within China, which report to the United Front Department of the Communist Party of China and do not act as opposition or independent parties. The continued dominance of the CPC, as with the parties of the last communist states (all in Asia and Latin America), can be attributed in part to its anti-colonial and "national liberation" credentials, burnished by its participation in events such as the Anti-Japanese War and the Korean War. According to historian of Communism Archie Brown, the memory of the Cultural Revolution, where a form of mass political mobilization turned against the Party and resulted in chaotic destruction, may account for the reticence of educated Chinese to press for an end to one-party rule.[29]

[edit] Political ideology and stances

[edit] Regional corruption and reform

The leaders of the Communist Party of China realize that there are serious problems with political corruption within China and with maintaining the trust of the Chinese people because of it. However, attempts made in closed-door sessions at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 17th Communist Party of China's Central Committee in September 2009 to grapple with these problems produced inconclusive results, although a directive which requires disclosure of investments and property holdings by party and governmental officials was passed.[30]

[edit] Relationship with competing ideologies

This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2010)
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The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (October 2010)
Trotskyists[which?] see the party as doomed to its present character - that of petty-bourgeois nationalism - in the 1920s, because of the near-annihilation of the workers' movement in the KMT betrayal of 1927. Stalin's order then that the Communists join with the KMT in a centrist coalition effectively disarmed the Chinese Communist Party, which opportunity the KMT swiftly exploited to defeat the communist revolution.[31] This slaughter forced the tiny surviving Party to switch from a workers' union to a peasant, guerilla-based organization, and to seek the aid of the most heterodox sources: from "patriotic capitalists" to the dreaded KMT itself, with which it openly sought to participate in a coalition government, even after the Japanese general surrender in 1945.[32] Chinese Trotskyists from Chen Duxiu (1879-1942) onward have called for a political revolution against what they see as the opportunist, capitalist leadership of the CPC.
Mao Zedong meets with President Nixon, February 29, 1972
Marxists also existed[when?] in the Kuomintang party. They viewed the Chinese revolution in different terms than the Communists, claiming that China already went past its feudal stage and had reached a period of stagnation rather than another mode of production. These Marxists in the Kuomintang opposed the Chinese Communist Party ideology.[33]
Maoists and other "anti-revisionists" viciously attack the changes after Mao Zedong's death, calling them the precise "capitalist road" Mao had pledged to fight during the early existence of the PRC. They do not hold any allegiance to the CPC.[citation needed] As an example of a well-known group, until recently armed, that looks to Mao's principles, note the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), which the current CPC has publicly opposed. Also, some Maoist groupings attack even some of the shifts and changes that occurred while Mao was still alive and in leadership, like his 1972 welcoming of Richard Nixon (see lesser evil for more on this event). The Chinese New Left, which encompasses these Maoists and other postmodernists is a current within China that seeks to "revert China to the socialist road" – i.e., to return China to the socialist system that existed before Deng Xiaoping's reforms of the 1980s.
Some of the opponents of the Party within the Chinese democracy movement have tended not to regard a strong Chinese state as inherently bad, but rather to emphasizethe corruption of the Communist leadership.[clarification needed] The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 represented a controversial point in criticism of the Chinese Communist Party by Chinese students within China.[34]
Another school of thought argues[citation needed] that the worst of the abuses took place decades ago, and that the current leaders not only had no connection with them, but were actually victims of that era. They have also argued that, while the modern Communist Party may be flawed, it is comparatively better than previous regimes, with respect to improving the general standard of living, than any other government that has governed China in the past century and emerges in a more favourable light compared with most governments of the developing nations. As a result, the CPC has recently[when?] taken sweeping measures to regain support from the countryside, with limited success.
In addition, some scholars[which?] contend that China has never operated under a decentralized democratic regime in its several thousand years of history, and therefore the present political structure, albeit not up to Western moral or political standards, may represent the best possible option when compared to the alternatives. A sudden transition to democracy, these experts[who?] contend, would result in the sort of economic and political upheaval that occurred in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s, and that by focusing on economic growth, China has started setting the stage for a more gradual but sustainable transition to a more politically liberal system. This group sees mainland China as resembling Franco's Spain in the 1960s, or South Korea during the 1970s when corrupt, authoritarian regimes ran that country. This school of thought also brings together some unlikely political allies.[citation needed] Not only do most intellectuals within the Chinese government follow this school of thinking, but it is also the common belief held amongst pro-free trade liberals in the West.[citation needed]
Many observers[which?] - both from within and outside of China - have argued that the CPC has taken gradual steps towards democracy and transparency, and hence advocate giving it time and room to evolve into a better government - more responsive to its people - rather than forcing an abrupt change with all the deleterious effects such a loss of stability might entail.[35] However, other observers (like Minxin Pei) question whether these steps are genuine efforts towards democratic reform or disingenuous measures by the CPC to retain power.[36]

[edit] Religion

See also: Freedom of religion in the People's Republic of China
The CPC, as an officially atheist organization, prohibits party members from holding religious beliefs (though this ban is, in many[which?] cases, unenforceable).
The Party's United Front Work Department coordinates with the State Administration for Religious Affairs to manage the country's five officially sanctioned religions. Unregistered religious groups face varying degrees of suppression under the Communist Party.[citation needed]

[edit] Current leadership

The Members of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China are:
PortraitInformationParty position(s)State position(s)
Xi Jinping
Rank1st[37]General Secretary of the CPC
Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission
President of the Central Party School of the CPC		Vice President of the People's Republic of China
Vice Chairman of the PRC Central Military Commission
NameXi Jinping
BirthplaceXicheng District, Beijing
NPC ConstituencyShanghai At-large
Member since22 October 2007
Xi Jinping
Rank2nd[37]Deputy Party secretary of the State Council of the People's Republic of ChinaFirst-ranked Vice Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China
NameLi Keqiang
BirthplaceDingyuan County, Chuzhou, Anhui
NPC ConstituencyLiaoning At-large
Member since22 October 2007
Zhang Dejiang
Rank3rd[37]To Be DeterminedThird-ranked Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China
NameZhang Dejiang
BirthplaceTai'an County, Anshan, Liaoning
NPC ConstituencyZhejiang At-large
Member since15 November 2012
Yu Zhengsheng
Rank4th[37]To Be DeterminedTo Be Determined
NameYu Zhengsheng
BirthplaceShaoxing, Zhejiang
NPC ConstituencyShanghai At-large
Member since15 November 2012
Liu Yunshan
Rank5th[37]Top-ranked Secretary of the Central Secretariat of the CPCTo Be Determined
NameLiu Yunshan
BirthplaceTumed Right Banner, Baotou, Inner Mongolia
NPC ConstituencyHenan At-large
Member since15 November 2012
Wang Qishan
Rank6th[37]Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline InspectionFourth-ranked Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China
NameWang Qishan
BirthplaceTianzhen County, Datong, Shanxi
NPC ConstituencyShandong At-large
Member since15 November 2012
Zhang Gaoli
Rank7th[37]To Be DeterminedTo Be Determined
NameZhang Gaoli
BirthplaceJinjiang, Quanzhou, Fujian
NPC ConstituencyTianjin At-large
Member since15 November 2012
Members of the Politburo of the CPC Central committee:
Members of the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee:

[edit] Historical leaders

Main article: List of leaders of the Communist Party of China
Between 1921 and 1943 the Communist Party of China was headed by the General Secretary:
  • Chen Duxiu, General Secretary 1921–1922 and 1925–1927
  • Qu Qiubai, General Secretary 1927–1928
  • Xiang Zhongfa, General Secretary 1928–1931
  • Li Lisan, acting General Secretary 1929–1930
  • Wang Ming, acting General Secretary 1931
  • Bo Gu, a.k.a. Qin Bangxian, acting General Secretary 1932–1935
  • Zhang Wentian a.k.a. Luo Fu, acting General Secretary 1935–1943
In 1943 the position of Chairman of the Communist Party of China was created.
In 1982, the post of Chairman was abolished, and the General Secretary, at this time held by the same man as the post of Chairman, once again became the supreme office of the Party.

[edit] Funding

The CPC charges a limited due on its members, receives donations, and operates some businesses, from which it derives money. But the majority of the Party's budget is supposed to come from a grant by the national treasury,[38] the same way that the other 8 subordinate parties are supposed to be funded. There is no official and public process for the grants to the Party, however.

[edit] Internet presence

As of 2010, the party has no standalone website.[39] Richard McGregor, author of The Party: The Secret World of China's Communist Rulers, recalled that when he asked Lu Weidong, a teacher at the party school in Yan'an, why this is the case, Lu responded that the idea of the party having its own website was "redundant" and that "All the important media is owned by the Party, so we have no need to set up a website."[40]

[edit] See also

Portal iconPeople's Republic of China portal
Portal iconPolitics portal

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ a b "China's new leaders". BBC. 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20308542.
  2. ^ 'New Approaches to the Study of Political Order in China', Donald Clarke, Modern China, 2009
  3. ^ Goodman, David S. G.; Segal, Gerald. China deconstructs: politics, trade, and regionalism. Psychology Press. pp. 48. ISBN 978-0-415-11833-0.
  4. ^ a b Ralph H. Folsom, John H. Minan, Lee Ann Otto, Law and Politics in the People's Republic of China, West Publishing (St. Paul 1992), pp. 76–77.
  5. ^ Susan V. Lawrence & Michael F. Martin, "Understanding China’s Political System", Congressional Research Service. May 10, 2012. Page 2.
  6. ^ Politics in China: An Introduction. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Pp. 159–161.
  7. ^ "China Information: The Communist Party of China (CPC)". China Today. http://www.chinatoday.com/org/cpc/. Retrieved October 29, 2010. "The Communist Party of China (CPC) was founded on July 1, 1921 in Shanghai, China."
  8. ^ Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (July 20, 2011). "On Party Anniversary, China Rewrites History". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/21/world/asia/21iht-letter21.html?_r=1&emc=tnt&tntemail1=y. Retrieved July 21, 2011. "The party’s true founding date is July 23, 1921, according to official documents."
  9. ^ "Hu warns Chinese Communist Party". BBC. July 1, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13985359. Retrieved July 21, 2011. "Although the Chinese are celebrating the anniversary on Friday, the party's first congress took place on July 23."
  10. ^ Gay, Kathlyn. [2008] (2008). 21st Century Books. Mao Zedong's China. ISBN 0-8225-7285-0. pg 7
  11. ^ "EPP". http://www.enrichprofessional.com/home/. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
  12. ^ Jayshree Bajoria, The Communist Party of China, Council of Foreign Relations backgrounder, October 12, 2007
  13. ^ Xinhua – China's Communist Party members exceed 80 million
  14. ^ "CCP celebrates its 90th anniversary". Talking Points, July 10–20, 2011. USC US-China Institute. http://china.usc.edu/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=2461. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
  15. ^ Images of GO CPC in Session
  16. ^ Uchicago.edu
  17. ^ Chinavitae.com
  18. ^ The Jamestown Foundation
  19. ^ Press centre of the 17th CPC National Congress
  20. ^ Andrew Jacobs (June 14, 2012). "Accused Chinese Party Members Face Harsh Discipline". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/15/world/asia/accused-chinese-party-members-face-harsh-discipline.html. Retrieved June 15, 2012.
  21. ^ Dirlik, Arif (1993). Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution. University of California Press. p. 16.
  22. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. pp. 376. ISBN 0-521-25514-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=warlords+and+muslims#v=snippet&q=fascist%20trotskyite%20plotters&f=false. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
  23. ^ "NewChina". http://www.enrichprofessional.com/home/. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
  24. ^ "ReformingChina". http://books.google.com/books?id=LuLYSAAACAAJ&dq=Enrich+Series+on+China%27s+Economic+Reform&hl=en&sa=X&ei=nDaPT-7aDMioiQKv8-X7Ag&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
  25. ^ Harvey, David. 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp. 120
  26. ^ Greenhalgh, Susan; Winckler, Edwin A. 2005. Governing China's Population: From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopolitics. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press.
  27. ^ Zhang, Xudong. Whither China?: Intellectual Politics in Contemporary China. Duke University Press. Pp. 52
  28. ^ Wong, John; Lai, Hongyi; Hongyi, Lai. China Into the Hu-Wen Era: Policy Initiatives and Challenges. Pp. 99 "...influence of neoliberalism has spread rapidly in China", "...neoliberalism had influenced not only college students but also economists and leading party cadres"...
  29. ^ a b Brown, Archie (2009). The Rise and Fall of Communism. HarperCollins. pp. 325–329, 586, 606, 612–613.
  30. ^ Wines, Michael (September 20, 2009). "Party’s Agenda in China Seems to Fall Flat". The New York Times
  31. ^ The tragedy of the 1925–1927 Chinese Revolution: Part 3, International Committee of the Fourth International
  32. ^ The death of China’s "red capitalist" and the 1949 revolution. International Committee of the Fourth International
  33. ^ T. J. Byres, Harbans Mukhia (1985). Feudalism and non-European societies. Psychology Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-7146-3245-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=usOMZjTWrJ0C. Retrieved November 28, 2010.
  34. ^ Zhang, L., Nathan, A. J., Link, P. & Schell O. The Tiananmen Papers: The Chinese Leadership's Decision to Use Force Against Their Own People – In Their Own Words. PublicAffairs, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58648-122-3.
  35. ^ Yang, Dali. Remaking the Chinese Leviathan. Stanford University Press, 2004.
  36. ^ An, Alex; An, David, China Brief, October 7, 2008. "Media control and the Erosion of an Accountable Party-State in China."
  37. ^ a b c d e f g "Xinhua Insight: China's new helmsmen". Xinhua. 15 November 2012. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/special/18cpcnc/2012-11/15/c_131977176.htm. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
  38. ^ 孙国良. "建立规范的党务经费制度" (in Chinese). 中国选举与治理. http://www.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid=107807. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
  39. ^ McGregor, p. 20.
  40. ^ McGregor, p. 20-21.

[edit] External links

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