Here
she is in all her glory. Type XII introduced streamlining in U-Boat
design, resulting in a quantum leap in underwater performance. All
submarines before this one were basically designed to submerge and stay
under the surface in one place (sans minor pedestrian manoeuvres using
electric power). Type XXI could easily steam in circles around any
Allied convoy – all under water. sourceU-2540
was an advanced submarine which entered service on 24th February 1945.
Less than 3 months later, on 4th May, she was scuttled by her own crew.
In
1957, she was raised and returned to service on 1st September 1960 as
the research submarine Wilhelm Bauer. She served in a civilian role
under various research projects before decommissioning on 15th March
1982. On 24th April 1984, she was transferred to the Deutsches
Schiffahrtsmuseum (German Maritime Museum) as the Technikmuseum Wilhelm
Bauer.
The
entrance to the museum is adorned by two propellers, one of which is
shown here. I’m quite certain that these are the original propellers of
this U-boat. sourceIn
the spring of 1943, Germany was clearly losing the battle of the
Atlantic. Improvements in Allied escort material and tactics, combined
with cracking the German military code dramatically increased the
U-Boats´ losses, rendering them near useless. The German high command
saw its best reaction in the speedy development of improved submarines.
Autro-Hungarian armored train, 1915. Wikipedia, Public Domain,
Armored
trains are a relic of the past by today’s standards but in the late
19th and early 20th century, these big steel-plated locomotives besieged
cities, pierced frontlines and supported infantry attacks all over the
world.
The beasts of the railroads began their epic service in the
American Civil War when a single car was built to defend the
Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad. Then war trains saw
action in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the First and the Second
Boer Wars which led the machines into the 20th century.
An 1861″Railroad
battery” used to protect workers during the American Civil War. By
Sketch by William C. Russell, engraver unknown, for Frank Leslie’s
Illustrated Newspaper – Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper. Page 9,
May 18, 1861, No. 287–Vol. XII. From digital scan at
http://archive.org/details/franklesliesilluv1112lesl, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20572199In
1905, these trains were used in the Far East as part of the
Russo-Japanese War, where the advantage of a large armored vehicle on
rails during harsh winters proved to be irreplaceable. Russia later saw
the even more extensive use of armored trains during the First World War
and the Civil War which commenced immediately after the October
Revolution.
Trains
were seen as transport mainly at the time, as they were capable of
carrying a large number of people and equipment in a short period of
time. Its transport use revolutionized the way battlefield logistics
were executed at the time. The fact that the machine was tied to the
tracks didn’t represent such a disadvantage, for this was the only dawn
of the automobile age and the four-wheelers were still lagging behind
the locomotive.
Needless to say, tanks were only in development
during the First World War, so flawed designs often lost sympathy in the
military, and trains proved to be more reliable. Mounted with cannons
and encased with thick armor, the trains were fearsome fighting
machines.
A typical Polish artillery car from 1939. Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=89125But
trains are perceived as transport mainly today, so this appendix of
history takes place in a time before the rapid development of armored
vehicles in the interwar period. During the Mexican Revolution
(1910–1920), the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the Second World War
armored trains were actively used by all parties included in the
conflicts.
In Poland, trains were active in the defense effort of
the September campaign against the invading Germans. The Germans, on the
other hand, developed super cannons on a train chassis, most famous
being the Schwerer Gustav, which saw limited service, but had a
devastating effect during the siege of Sevastopol.
Apart from
official military use, trains often served as support for partisan
groups which staged massive offensives during the last years of the
Second World War. Such was the case in Slovakia, where three armored
trains ― The Hurban, Štefánik, and Masaryk ― delivered a decisive blow
to the weakened German units in September of 1944.
A Russian WW II-era armored
train with antiaircraft gunners. By Unknown –
http://mechcorps.rkka.ru/files/bepo/media/bepo_094.jpg, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5150971The
reason for its abandonment was clearly the change within the methods of
warfare, as tanks and motorized infantry dictated military doctrines
that slowly pushed out the armored train. Since trains were limited to
railroads, they were more vulnerable to bombers and artillery.
In
addition to that, the railways were more and more subjected to acts of
sabotage by commando or partisan units, which slowed the advance of the
trains significantly. The mere fact that it relied on the use of tracks
turned these war machines into vulnerable giants.
Nevertheless, trains continued to serve in battle even after WWII (but far less actively), most notably in Indochina.
But
in the countries of the Eastern Bloc, the use of trains as means of
battle was nurtured as a tradition. Even though it was old-fashioned in a
way, it was still suitable for serving as a mobile intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
launching ramp. In the late stages of the Cold War, the RT-23 Molodets,
an intercontinental ballistic missile, entered service in the Soviet
Union during the Cold War.
Rt
23 complex “Molodets” as a cargo train with a sensor for orientation on
the lighting mast. By Vitold Muratov – Own Work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27780149It
was capable of carrying a nuclear warhead. One of the options for
transporting and launching the missile was from a specially designed
train across the Trans-Siberian Railway. The strategic importance of
this railway was emphasized during the 1970s after the split between the
Soviet and the Chinese government. According to different accounts,
four or five armored trains were built in order to protect the
southeastern borders of USSR.
Every train included ten main battle
tanks, two light amphibious tanks, several AA guns, as well as several
armored personnel carriers, supply vehicles and equipment for railway
repairs. They were all mounted on open platforms or in special rail
cars. Different parts of the train were protected with 5–20mm-thick
armor.
So it is not surprising that some of the last known uses of
armored trains happened during the conflicts following the collapse of
the Soviet Union 1990s, most notably in the disputed area of
Nagorno-Karabakh, between today’s Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Also,
during the Yugoslav Wars from 1991 to 2001, some improvised armored
trains were used by paramilitaries in the conflict in Croatia and
Bosnia. These were regular passenger trains transformed into terrible
land cruisers, capable of laying siege to towns and villages across the
war-torn Bosnia.
The
most infamous train that was in service during those years was the
Krajina Ekspres, employed by the members of a Serbian paramilitary in
Bosnia. The train took part in a three-year-long siege of the town of
Bihac, which lasted from 1992 to 1995.
Even then the technology
was considered to be obsolete, but in a conflict between various
paramilitary and guerilla groups, such hardware proved to be
intimidating. In late 2015, Pro-Russian militants in the Donbass region
of Ukraine were pictured operating a homemade armored train.
One
armored train that remains in regular use is that of Kim Il-sung and Kim
Jong-il, which the former received as a gift from the Soviet Union and
the latter used heavily for state visits to China and Russia as he had a
fear of flying.
Ever
wondered what happened with the airplanes that made an emergency
landing in occupied territory? When captured (relatively) intact they
were tested by the Germans and sometimes put into service!
Enjoy these amazing pictures of familiar Allied airplanes in very unfamiliar colors and markings!
The waters off the coast of Antikythera in Greece hold many
mysteries of the ancient world that are yet to be uncovered. Site of the
largest shipwreck from antiquity, the region boasts a treasure trove of
invaluable artifacts as well as the famous Antikythera Mechanism, a
2,000-year-old astronomical calculator that is widely considered the
world’s oldest computer. Recently, researchers working at the site have
discovered a well-preserved skeleton of a young man, which they believe
could provide the earliest DNA evidence ever retrieved from a sunken
vessel.
Native
Americans made an enormous contribution to the World War II effort.
Sadly, their involvement in the conflict is widely overlooked.
Sometimes, they are portrayed as codebreakers and nothing more. This is
not the case. Native Americans played a huge role in the war from its
beginning to its end.
From the time the Europeans began settling
in the New World, the population of the Native Americans began
decreasing at an alarmingly rapid rate. The group’s population was
seeing a little bit of a rise during the beginning of the 21st century.
However, another large chunk of this growing population would fall prey
to another harsh crime of the Western world – World War II. In fact,
44,000 Native American individuals participated in the war.
The
Heavy Assault Tank or Assault Gun, Tortoise, was a British tank design
developed in World War II but never put into mass production. It was
developed for the task of clearing heavily fortified areas and as a
result favoured armour protection over mobility.
In the early part
of 1943, the Allied forces anticipated considerable resistance in the
projected future invasion of Europe, with the enemy fighting from
heavily fortified positions such as the Siegfried Line. As a result, a
new class of vehicles emerged, in the shape of Assault tanks, which
placed maximum armour protection at a higher priority than mobility.
A macuahuitl, a
type of macana, is a wooden sword with obsidian blades. The name is
derived from the Nahuatl language. Its sides are embedded with prismatic
blades traditionally made from obsidian, famous for producing an edge
far sharper than even high-quality steel razor blades. It was a common
weapon used by the Aztec military forces and other cultures of central
Mexico. It was described during the 16th-century Spanish conquest of the
region.
He
joined the Army Air Force in 1945 and was qualified as a B-17 “Flying
Fortress” Radio Operator/Aerial Gunner, serving in Europe at the end of
WWII. He was awarded the American Campaign Medal, WWII Victory Medal and
German Occupation Medal. James Best (born Jewel Franklin Guy;
July 26, 1926 – April 6, 2015) was an American actor, who in six
decades of television is best known for his starring role as bumbling
Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane in the CBS television series The Dukes of Hazzard. He also worked as an acting coach, artist, college professor, and musician.
While comprising a group of Germanic tribes from continental
Europe, the Anglo-Saxons established themselves in Great Britain from
the 5th century. This consequent Anglo-Saxon epoch (from roughly 449 –
1066 AD) led to the creation of the English nation and the resurgence of
Christianity in Britain. And even beyond culture and religion, one of
the lasting legacies of these Germanic people is their contribution to
the ambit of language – what we know today as Old English. However in
this article we have decided to explore one of the lesser known avenues
relating to the Anglo-Saxons, and it pertains to their incredible
military that bridged the gap between the ancient ‘barbarian’ Germans
and the ordered medieval armies. So without further ado, let us take a
gander at ten fascinating things you should know about the Anglo-Saxon
warriors.
1) The Roman influence?
Illustration by Angus Mcbride
While the diminishing of Roman imperial rule set the tone for
Anglo-Saxon arrivals at the shores of the British islands (circa 5th
century AD), it should be noted that the late Roman Empire already
followed an ‘inclusive’ military doctrine that allowed the employment of
auxiliary units. By 4th century, in the northern frontier, these
auxiliary units were often composed of entire Germanic sub-tribes, who
were settled as foederati (allied troops) in marches, buffer
zones and areas of conflict. During the same time-period, the Romans (or
Romano-British) had already begun to set up coastal defenses to protect
their shores from the forays of the independent Anglo-Saxon tribes.
The ancient city of Akragas (or Ἀκράγας) in Sicily was one of the major Greek-populated settlements of Magna Graecia,
during what is termed as the golden age of Greek city-states (circa 5th
century BC). The city was originally founded in early 6th century by
Greek colonists from Gela (in Sicily), and by the turn of the century it
possibly had a population of more than 100,000 people. In fact, even
after numerous political and military upheavals during the Punic Wars,
the city managed to regain its prosperity, so much so that its
inhabitants (the city being renamed Agrigentum) were granted Roman citizenship after the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC.
Last month we showcased the (what if) 3D reconstruction of the Solomon’s Temple
in accordance to its Biblical measurements. Now beyond its religious
status as the grand First Jewish Temple built on the Temple Mount,
Solomon’s Temple is also known for its housing of the fabled Ark of the
Covenant. This naturally brings us the million-dollar question – what
exactly was the Ark of the Covenant? Well as literary sources mention,
the legendary artifact was possibly a gold-plated chest that stored the
sacred tablets containing the original Ten Commandments. But as every
Indiana Jones fan worth his salt would know, the Ark is elusive (or
perhaps even ‘illusory’) – and as such is still lost to the researchers
of our modern age. But an ancient Hebrew text translated in 2013, might
provide some (possibly fancy) insights into the whereabouts and status
of this puzzling artifact, along with the other treasures of King
Solomon – who was said to be the richest man of his time in Biblical
sources.
From the historical perspective many scholars believe that music
played an integral role in the lives of ordinary ancient Greeks, given
its role in most social occasions – ranging from religious rites,
funerals to theater and public recitation of ballads and epic-poetry.
Both archaeological and literary evidences rather bolster such a theory
that points to the crucial nature of music in ancient Greece. In fact,
the Greeks attributed the ‘creativity’ of musical compositions to divine
entities, and as such etymologically the very word ‘music’ is derived
from ‘Muses‘, the personifications of knowledge and art who
were the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Interestingly, Mnemosyne
herself was the personification of memory, and was also one of the
Titans, the children of Uranus the Sky and Gaia the Earth.
Furthermore when it came to the ancient Greek musical instruments, the musicians had a penchant for lyres (and kithara), aulos pipes and syrinx, and even the hydraulis
– a setup that was the precursor to the modern organ. And with the aid
of the flurry of archaeological and literary evidences of vocal
notations and musical ratios, combined with the identification of these
instruments, researchers have been able to recreate precise renditions
of ancient Greek music. For example, Dr David Creese,
Head of Classics & Ancient History at the University of Newcastle,
has devised the following reconstruction of a musical piece that was
etched on the ‘Seikilos epitaph’ dating from 1st century AD –
Now in case you are interested, the ‘song’ that was recreated by Dr
David Creese is actually the world’s oldest known complete song.
Inscribed on the Seikilos epitaph, the ancient Greek characters on the
slab allude to the piece’s Hellenistic Ionic origin. Interestingly, the
completeness of its composition is partly due its short nature. To that
end, the lyrics has been roughly translated to English, excluding the
musical notation –
While you live, shine
have no grief at all
life exists only for a short while
and time demands its toll.
This lyrical part is also accompanied by a poignant etching that
takes narrative of the epitaph itself – “I am a tombstone, an image.
Seikilos placed me here as an everlasting sign of deathless
remembrance.” In any case, as opposed to the Hurrian Hymns (the oldest
known song in the world), the Greek composition on the Seikilos epitaph
is complete – and thus is less open to interpretation. Simply put, there
is more chance of hearing the originally ‘intended’ rendition of this
Ionic song, even when recreated in our modern times. So if interested,
you can check out this vocal rendition of the enchanting ‘Song of
Seikilos’ – the oldest known complete song in the world –
And in case you are in mood for something more jovial, take a gander at
the modern guitar-fueled cover of the ‘Song of Seikilos’, sung and
played by famous internet teacher Hank Green –
The Greek word for military equipment roughly translates to hopla,
and thus a hoplite simply pertained to the ancient Greek version of the
‘man at arms’ or ‘armored man’. But as opposed to their late medieval
counterparts, the ancient hoplites were first and foremost
citizen-soldiers. Simply put, these conscripted men were expected to
take part in battles to safeguard their own interests, freedoms and
farms, in contrast to viewing military as a contractual well-paying
career. And while the ‘classic’ well-armored and trained Greek soldier
was ultimately eclipsed by the tactical Macedonian phalanx in late 4th
century BC, hoplites (and their predecessors) had dominated the
Mediterranean battlefields for almost three centuries before that.
On the other cultural spectrum, the development of ancient Greek art
was rather mirrored by the pottery designs that were made between the
time-fame of 1000 – 400 BC. Continuing the artistic legacy of the
earlier Minoan pottery and Mycenaean pottery, the vase painting in the
late Archaic Age (620 to 480 BC) mainly comprised the so-termed ‘black
figure’. As Mark Cartwright wrote (for Ancient Encyclopedia) in regard to the predominance of black figures during the aforementioned period –
The unique legacy left behind by late Marcel Mazliah is something
to boast about when it comes to a historical scope. Over the years, the
electric company worker had made a personal collection of priceless
artifacts (with one of the items being around 3,500-years old) that were
salvaged from the Mediterranean Sea bordering Israel. And fortuitously,
his family has now decided to hand over the incredible treasure trove
to the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), which would earn them a good
citizen award from the state. But beyond ownership and recognition, one
particular artifact from the collection stands out – and it entails an
actual Crusader-era hand grenade that rather showcases its medieval
brand of fine craftsmanship.
From the perspective of etymology, the term ‘grenade’ was most probably derived from Old French ‘pomegranate’ (possibly influenced by Spanish granada)
circa 1590 AD, since the fruit resembles the fragmented-form of the
weapon. As for the historical side of affairs, grenades in their
rudimentary designs were probably used in the 8th century AD Eastern
Roman armies, with Greek Fire concoctions sometimes being stashed inside
pots and jars, to be thrown at enemies.
Credit: Diego Barkan, Israel Antiquities Authority
Greek Fire
in itself is said to be originally created by a Syrian Engineer named
Callinicus (who was a refugee from Maalbek). The technology was sort of a
precursor to napalm, and it entailed vicious ‘liquid fire’ that
continued to burn even while floating in water. In fact, some writers
have gone on to explain how the viciously efficient Greek Fire could
only be mitigated by extinguishing it with sand, strong vinegar or old
urine.
As for the hand grenade in question here, the embellished metal-made
bomb-like item probably harks back to the period circa 13th century AD,
thus coinciding with the time-frame of the Crusaders, Ayyubids and early
Mamluks. The military forces of this time possibly used some variation
of an inflammable substance, including a combination of materials like
naphtha, pitch (obtained from coal tar), sulfur and resin – for their
grenades. On the other hand, a few scholars believe that as opposed to
chemical warfare, these ‘grenades’ only had ornamental purposes for
storing perfume.
Credit: Diego Barkan, Israel Antiquities Authority.
In any case, archaeologists from the IAA were pleasantly surprised by
a slew of other metal objects that were stashed by Mazliah. According
to his family, the electric company worker got hold of the artifacts
from under the sea, as a result of numerous ancient and medieval
shipwrecks that dot the Israeli coast. Ayala Lester, a curator with the
IAA, stated –
The finds include a toggle pin and the head of a knife
from the Middle Bronze Age from more than 3,500 years ago [see above].
The other items, among them, two mortars and two pestles, fragments of
candlesticks, and so on, date to the Fatimid period. The items were
apparently manufactured in Syria and were brought to Israel.
Lastly beyond the scope of the treasure trove accumulated by Mazliah,
the occurrence of shipwrecks around the coastal regions of Levant could
be attested by a fascinating find in May of this year. Touted to be the
largest hoard of marine-based objects
in the last 30 years in Israel, IAA announced that the treasure stash
contained both bronze statues and coins, along with other assorted
stuff. And interestingly enough, the discovery was made quite by chance
when two divers identified the remains of the ancient ship and reported
back to the authorities.
Credit: Amir Gorzalczany, Israel Antiquities Authority.
A 1700-year old limestone epitaph slightly bigger than an iPad
sheds light into the fusion of different religious entities prevalent in
early 3rd century AD ancient Egypt. Salvaged from a collection of Greek
and Coptic artifacts from University of Utah’s J. Willard Marriott
Library, this engraved object commemorates a woman named Helene. And
while she is identified (in the epitaph itself) as a Jewish woman,
Helene is also referred by a title that was usually associated with
Christian women in this late-antiquity time period of Egypt, thus
alluding to an inclusive societal scope.
The translation was made by BYU associate professor of ancient scripture Lincoln H. Blumell. The inscription reads like this –
The episodes of war and human conflicts are persistent when it
comes to the rich tapestry of history. And in such a vast ambit of
wanton destruction and death, there have been a few civilizations,
tribes and factions that had accepted warfare as an intrinsic part of
their culture. So without further ado, let us take a gander at ten of
the incredible warrior cultures from the ancient times that pushed forth
the ‘art of war’ (or rather the art of dealing with war) as an
extension of their social system.
Researchers from the Jerusalem-based Temple Mount Sifting Project
has accomplished quite a feat by restoring a unique architectural scope
of the once-monumental Second Jewish Temple. This fascinating ambit
mainly entails the richly decorated floor tiles that adorned the
porticoes on the Temple Mount. Simply put, these ancient specimens
probably played their decorative role along the courtyards of the huge
temple complex, corresponding to the period when King Herod ruled over
the Roman client realm of Judea (circa 37 – 4 BC). Now interestingly if
the project is assessed to be accurate, this would be the first time
that archaeologists had been able to successfully restore any element
from the Second Temple.
Researchers announced the discovery of a new (extinct) species of
pterosaur from the Patagonia region of South America. The discovery was
made from the cranial remains of a specimen that were found to be a
pretty well preserved condition, probably dated from the Early Jurassic
period (around 200 – 175 million years ago). Interestingly enough, the
new species was named as the Allkauren koi, from the native Tehuelche language – with ‘all’ roughly translating to ‘brain’ and ‘kauren’ meaning ‘ancient’.
The very name ‘Pterosaur’ comes from the Greek for ‘winged lizards’.
These astounding flying reptiles ruled the skies between the late
Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period; and quite unsurprisingly,
one of the largest known flying animals of all time – Quetzalcoatlus,
comes from this extinct clade. In terms of size, the larger variant of
Quetzalcoatlus’ is estimated to have had an incredible wingspan of over
36 ft. But interestingly this was just one end of the size spectrum,
with some Pterosaur specimens also showcasing the diminutive dimensions
of small sparrows.
Just
one of the amazing pictures uncovered from the mysterious rolls of film
by the Rescued Film Project. (Image captured from the vIdeo below)
The
Second World War is considered to be one of the most filmed and
photographed conflict in recorded history. There were photographers
attached to the armies, recording every battle. They filmed and
photographed destroyed cities, piles of bodies, scared and shaken
citizens and starving Holocaust survivors.
Recent studies show
that there were many individuals filming the conflict, but that most of
those films were either lost during the war or were not developed in the
years following.
Photographer Levi Bettwieser discovered an amazing set of rolls in 2014. He runs the ‘Rescued Film Project’, paying tribute to the unknown photographer who had created the film during the war.
The
Rescued Film Project is a short documentary about the processing of
these mysterious film rolls. The process itself was quite an
exhilarating experience for him, but when he developed and saw the
pictures, he was astonished by his discovery.
Google Earth top-view of the possible theater at Akragas. Credit: AgrigentoSette
Carrying the Ark of the Covenant: gilded bas-relief at the Auch Cathedral.
Symposium scene, circa 490 BC. Wikimedia Commons.
Credit: Amir Gorzalczany, Israel Antiquities Authority.
Credit: Jaren Wilkey/BYU
Illustration by Angus McBride.
The Jewish Second Temple replica.
Reconstruction of a ptesosaur. Credit: Gabriel Lío
