…an aggressive, murderously vindictive regime supported by a magnificent and successful war machine. As with the German army of World War II, the Assyrian army was the most technologically and doctrinally advanced of its day and was a model for others for generations afterwards. The Assyrians were the first to make extensive use of iron weaponry [and] not only were iron weapons superior to bronze, but could be mass-produced, allowing the equipping of very large armies indeed.But unlike the supporters of Nazi Germany, the Assyrians were arguably more ‘progressive’ in their political institutions. While having the tendency to deport large number of people, they believed in the collective nature of being Assyrian (a ‘title’ given even to the conquered people under their dominion). In essence, they didn’t believe in nonsensical entities like ‘master race’; rather the later Assyrian rulers looked at every subject as a potential military/economic resource integral to the empire.
Moreover, the Assyrian state existed for long before its final culmination into the magnificent Neo-Assyrian Empire. In fact, according to most historians, their capital city of Ashur was founded sometime in the 3rd millennium BC, thus being even older (by centuries) than the great Babylonian king Hammurabi and his code. So without further ado, let us take a gander at ten facts you should know about the incredible Assyrians and their army (military system).
1) The Assyrian paradox –
During their zenith from 10th century BC to 7th century BC, the Assyrians controlled an enormous territory that extended from the borders of Egypt to the eastern highlands of Iran. Many historians perceive Assyria to be among the first ‘superpowers’ of the Ancient World. And quite paradoxically, the rise of Assyrian militarism and imperialism (from 15th century BC) mirrored their land’s initial vulnerability, as it laid inside the rough triangle defined between the cities of Nineveh, Ashur and Ardabil (all in northern Mesopotamia). Simply put, this terrain rich in its plump grain-lands was open to plunder from most sides, with potential risks being posed by the nomadic tribes, hill folks and even proximate competing powers. This in turn affected a reactionary measure in the Assyrian society – that led to development of an effective and well organized military system that could cope with the constant state of aggression, conflicts and raids (much like the Romans).
Such an intrinsic scope of military being tied with the economic well-being of a state, resulted in what can called a domino effect. So in a sense, while the Assyrians formulated their ‘attack is the best defense’ strategies, the proximate states became more war-like, thus adding to the list of enemies for the Assyrians to conquer. Consequently, when the Assyrians went on war footing, their military was able to absorb more ideas from foreign powers, which led to an ambit of evolution and flexibility (again much like the later Romans). These tendencies of flexibility, discipline and incredible fighting skills became the hallmark of the Assyrian armies that triumphed over most of the powerful Mesopotamian kingdoms in Asia by 8th century BC.
2) War – the great economic system
As we discussed before, the scope of Assyrian military development and expansion was intrinsically tied to the economic prosperity of the rising realm. In the period circa 1450 BC, such a military system was required for actually protecting the vulnerability of the Assyrian lands locked between the powerful Mesopotamian states of Mitanni at the north and Babylonia at the south, which supported the land’s economic stability. But as the centuries went by, Assyria morphed into the aggressor with the aid of its continually developing military prowess.
Suffice it to say, more conquered lands brought more plunder in the form of various valuable resources, ranging from metals, horses to skill-based populations. This was complemented by the control of crucial trade routes that crisscrossed through various parts of Mesopotamia. In essence, waging wars (along with conquering and raiding) became organized ventures conducted for the betterment of the Assyrian realm’s economy. So simply put, by 11th century BC, the security needs of the state became indistinguishable from the prosperity of the ascending empire – with the Assyrian military playing its crucial role in both the ‘merged’ affairs.
3) The Assyrian king equated to the ultimate embodiment of power –
As warfare became an organized economic activity of the Assyrian state, the realm’s militarism was epitomized by its ruler. In other words, when the realm morphed into a burgeoning empire, the scope of expansionism was mirrored by ideological values (since economic prosperity alone was not enough in enticing a growing populace). Such theological/nationalistic tendencies to associate war with glory became a cornerstone policy for the political elite of Assyria, with the king taking the center-stage in war-based policies. The Mesopotamian god Ashur was the head of the Assyrian pantheon, and hence every decision made by the ruler was taken under the symbolic ‘validation’ of Ashur – ranging from plundering, massacres to even domestic policies.
So in many ways, the Assyrian state (along with its power and policies) was espoused by its king. This meant that the Assyrian ruler had to take up multiple roles – like acting as Ashur’s earthly ‘agent’, proving himself as a capable commander-in-chief of the army and also taking part in domestic and political affairs. Such a stringently centralized structure of administration and politics was advantageous to dynamic rulers like Tiglath Pileser III, Sargon II and Sennacherib. But on the other side of the coin, it also made the Assyrian state overtly dependent on its king. Consequently, a weak ruler usually mirrored the ‘bad times’ faced by the empire.
4) The ‘rightful’ policy of frightfulness –
In an example of Assyrian annals in 9th century BC, the 7th campaign of King Ashurnasirpal II had been described in full and gory details. The keywords in these official records often contained phrases like ‘massacred’, ‘razed’, ‘destroyed’, ‘burned’, ‘felled with the sword’ and ‘erected them (alive people) on stakes’. Now while these words concoct imagery of savagery and sadism (which actually might have been the truth in some cases), there was more to the scope of Assyrian brutality than sheer terror. In fact, according to historical evidences, most of these punitive campaigns were usually conducted for mitigating rebellions that fumed around corners of the Assyria realm. So in a sense, the very nature of these brutal actions and punishments was used a counter to the restlessness (and apparent disorganized scope) of the rebels and potential rebels.
In other words, the policy of frightfulness was employed as a psychological measure that would ‘discipline’ the rebellious Assyrian (and other client) subjects – a military strategem also used by the Mongols on their opponents. To that end, such terrors were inflicted as intentional ‘calculated’ ploys by the king and his loyal commanders. Moreover, if we go the route of Assyrian annalistic traditions, the punishments were specially selected and only employed in chosen circumstances. But when they were indeed inflicted, the savage actions were fully ‘advertised’ so as to serve as reminders to the future rebels and proximate powers.
5) The appointment of eunuchs as an imperial political move –
By the first half of 8th century BC (from around 811-745 BC), the Assyrian empire delved into a political turmoil with many provincial governors gaining more power and virtually declaring their autonomy from the traditionally centralized state. But the ascendancy of King Tiglath-Pileser III changed it all, with a flourishing period of rigorous political and administrative reformation. One of his first orders of business was to break down the areas (and thus populations) encompassed by each province into smaller administrative units. Simply put, such measures were approved to fully undermine the power of the provincial nobles and political elites. However the dynamic Tiglath Pileser didn’t just stop at reducing their territorial integrity. He also took the seemingly desperate approach that would inherently curb the power of the nobles in future scenarios – by employing ‘sha reshe’ or eunuchs as state-monitored governors of many such administrative units spread across the empire. Such drastic steps made sure that the disgruntled descendants of many elites couldn’t access their power base, while at the same time reinforcing the loyalty of the state employed eunuch.
6) From summer service to a professional standing army –
Beyond the political and administrative realms, Tiglath-Pileser III was also known for reforming the much touted Assyrian army. In the period between 14th century to early 8th century, the army was mainly drawn from the native peasant population. In that regard, the military had to follow the dictates of seasonal campaigning, since most farmers were occupied throughout the spring and early summer. So only by July, the annual call ups were generally made; and thus campaigns, invasions and even raids were ‘adjusted’ in accordance to the yearly agricultural time-table.
Suffice it to say, this mustering system was inflexible due to a lot of seasonal variables. But Tiglath-Pileser traversed the whims of nature by creating an entirely standing army known as ‘kisir sharruti‘. Simply put, his army (or at least most of the manpower) was available to him throughout the year, with a strict recruitment policy being imposed from the native provinces. This was supplemented by tributes in form of manpower from the proximate vassals along with mercenaries, thus transforming the national army into a diverse bunch. However in spite of such diversity, the Assyrians were probably among the first factions in history to make use of uniformed appearances for their military forces. Beyond tactical advantages, the element of uniformity in armor types and arms was possibly utilized to endow a ‘nationalistic’ flair to the empire’s army. These factors in turn led to the momentous creation of well-equipped armed forces that were the ancient precursors to modern day professional armies.
7) Chariots – the ultimate shock weapons
Credit: Angus McBride
However the chariot also had its shortcomings in the scope of flexibility, especially in uneven terrains. This is where the trained cavalry forces of the Assyrians came into the fray. In the battlefield, they were used to exploit and then drive home the charge that was initially carried forth by the heavy chariots. Such grand maneuvers were complemented by other crucial activities like surveillance and flanking. Interestingly, one of the tactical units of the Assyrian army pertained to the pairing of two horsemen, where one rider held the reigns of the other horse while his ‘partner’ rider shot his bow. Tiglath-Pileser III’s army reforms retained such a pairing tactic, but the horse archers were gradually replaced by dual lancers.
Over time the economic advantage of cavalry forces over chariots became much evident, and as such the Assyrians began to treat horses as valuable resources. In fact, by 9th century BC, many of their wars and raids were targeted towards acquiring lands with proven horse-breeding pedigree, like Medes. Furthermore, horse supply lines within the empire were micromanaged at the provincial level with specialized officials employed for the task.
8) The shield and archer system –
In the previous entry we talked about the pairing system of horsemen that allowed them to function as a tactical team on the battlefield. But beyond elite chariots and cavalry forces, the bulk of the Assyrian army was formed of infantrymen. Given the Assyrian penchant for organizational capacity, the infantry must have been grouped into specific formations – each with their own set of tactical values. To that end, the Assyrians also employed the pairing system when it came to their often vulnerable archers. In ancient times, some cultures valued the skill of archery, and so its predominance as an offensive arm of the army was ingrained in their military doctrines. The Assyrians further developed this ambit by employing a dedicated spear bearer who accompanied the archer. So while the archer reloaded his bow, the spear man was responsible for protecting his partner (a formation type also encountered in the later Persian Achaemenid armies).
The enormous shields (that were often higher than the men) are evidently portrayed in the bas-reliefs from the time of Tiglath-Pileser. According to contemporary records, these shields were apparently made of thick plaited reeds. And once again harking back to the organizational skill of the Assyrians, there were specially allotted river beds that were chosen for growing the reeds (to be used specifically in the large, protective shields).
9) Proficiency in siege –
Credit: Angus McBride
Suffice it to say, there was an Assyrian method to the madness when it came to advanced siegecraft. But as historian Mark Healy noted (in his book The Ancient Assyrians), the Assyrians were not always ‘comfortable’ with siege warfare; and their first choice traditionally harked back to disciplined yet flexible maneuvers on open battlefields. In that regard, it can be argued that the policies of terrorizing and frightfulness might have been used as ‘solutions’ that broke the morale of the enemies before it even came to the final stage of defensive siege warfare.
10) Inflated skins for swimming –
The Assyrian military ingenuity however didn’t stop at mixed cavalry forces and incredible siege crafts. One particular bas-relief aptly showcases how Assyrian soldiers (probably the ones assaulting from the river front) were provided with specially designed goatskin-bags that could be inflated and then used to ferry across the water, with the horses tethered and guided behind them. In a similar manner, their enormous war machines were basically modular in design. So these engines and towers could be dismantled and tied to specially devised marine-crafts made of skin and easily hauled across rivers, to be later assembled outside the city walls. And we stretch the scope a bit, there are also references to scuba diving in Assyrian culture, as is represented in a 3000-year-old fresco that shows men swimming under water, using some kind of breathing device.
Sources: Ancient.eu / Livius / Aina / Fordham University / AssyriaTimes / Academia
Book References: The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy (By Mario Liverani) / The Ancient Assyrians (By Mark Healy)
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