Today in Military History: July 15, 1410:Battle of Tannenberg/Grunwald: Polish-Lithuanian Army Defeats Teutonic Knights

by Siggurdsson

 

Oil on canvas painting, on display at the National Museum of Warsaw, Poland
Lithuanian Duke Vytautus – in red velvet – at center, wielding one of the Grunwald Swords
(Unless otherwise indicated, all illustrations are courtesy of Wikipedia)

One of the most famous fighting organizations of the Middle Ages was the Teutonic Knights, a religious crusading order that attained a unique position in the late Middle Ages. While their brother orders (the Templars, the Hospitallers, etc.) acquired great monetary wealth and prestige, the Teutonic Knights also managed to own large parcels of land in what is today eastern Germany, northern Poland, Latvia and Estonia. Today's military history highlight was probably the most famous battle in their history.

Background: The Teutonic Order

Coat of arms of the Teutonic Order

The origin of the Teutonic Knights can be traced to the Papal recognition of an independent German knightly order in 1198, the “Fratres Domus hospitalis sanctae Mariae Teutonicorum” (the Brethren of the German Hospital of St. Mary). Like the other knightly orders mentioned above, the origin of the Teutonic Knights can be traced to the formation of a hospital established in the early 12th century in Crusader-ruled Jerusalem by German Crusaders. These orders combined the seemingly disparate characteristics of a religious order and a chivalric knighthood. In time, the Teutonic Knights would be easily recognized by their white surcoats emblazoned with a black cross.

Their castles, scattered from the Middle East to Transylvania, from Italy to the Baltic, were also administrative centers and convents, as the Teutonic Knights were “warrior monks.” They were required to share much of their property amongst their fellows (they were forbidden to have locks on the trunks where they stored their clothing and personal belongings). Prayers were said and rituals took place throughout the day. While particularly devoted to the Virgin Mary, the Order also chose St. George as a patron saint.

The vast majority of the membership of the Order came from Germany and the other states of the Holy Roman Empire. There was a sort of class division inside the order: there were the full brother Knights, as well as the “half-brothers” who were essentially apprentice-monks, who were treated as servants in peacetime and served as foot soldiers supporting the heavily armed full brothers in time of war. These half-brothers also were distinguished by the grey mantles with black crosses which they wore, as opposed to the white surcoats of a full brother. In addition, the Teutonic Knights also attracted mercenary warriors from all over Europe. There were even some princes from various European nations outside Germany who pledged troops to the Order whenever they might need them, simply on the basis of the Order's crusading reputation. [Many of these non-German princes came to the Order's lands to participate in their annual raids against the Lithuanians.]

Further, the Order was responsible for organizing trade networks in the areas they ruled. They had wide ranging commercial contacts with the Middle East, western Europe and even Russia. These trade contacts allowed the Order to amass a considerable fortune. They also were responsible for the expansion of weapon and armor manufacturing in Germany.

Background to the Battle

Within a hundred years of its founding, the Teutonic Knights acquired lands and built several castles in Palestine and Asia Minor, including a major holding in the port city of Acre. As with the other Crusader knightly orders, insufficient manpower hampered their efforts to keep the Holy Land under Christian control; by 1291, nearly all of these properties had been re-taken by the Islamic rulers of the area.

In about the year 1211, the Order was granted rights and territory in southeastern Europe by King Andrew II of Hungary, who was seeking to expand his realm into what is modern-day Romania. The Teutonic Knights thrived in this area for about 14 years, bringing in settlers from Germany, specifically the province of Saxony, who established a middle class in a Slavic society where no such class previously existed. [Even today, hundreds of years since they settled in Romania, persons of German ethnicity are commonly referred to as “Saxons.”] Despite the Order's initial successes against the indigenous Turkic Kipchak tribes, in 1225 the Hungarian monarch pushed the German Crusaders out.

The leadership of the Teutonic Order then decided they needed to find a new area for their efforts. They found the perfect victims in the eastern Baltic. In addition to pagans to convert to Catholicism – the Prussians, Lithuanians and Estonians – they also found economic opportunities aplenty. Further, there were large tracts of undeveloped land that the Knights could take for their own. By the 1280's, the Order conquered and converted the previously pagan Prussians, forming the core of their temporal empire.

Charge of the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Lake Peipus
Artist unknown, image courtesy of http://thelastsummoner.tumbler.com

After absorbing the membership, lands and castles of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, the Teutonic Order's holdings expanded into Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia). They also came into direct conflict with the Rus'ians of Novgorod, vying with them for land and souls, as the Eastern Orthodox rite was the religious preference of the Novgorodians. This competition eventually led to open war, which culminated in the famous battle against Prince Alexander Nevsky on the shores of Lake Peipus, the “Battle on the Ice” in April, 1242. [For more information on this fight, please see my updated BurnPit story dated April 5, 2014,Battle of Lake Peipus: Alexander Nevsky Wins the "Battle on the Ice".]

King Wladyslaw II Jagiello (artist unknown), detail of the
Triptych of Our Lady of Sorrows in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland

Despite losing this battle, the Teutonic Knights set their sights on the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose province of Samogitia separated the Order's lands in Prussia and Livonia. For the next 170 years, the Order would make every effort to bring the Lithuanian realm under their control. However, in 1385, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania accepted a marriage proposal from representatives of the 11 year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland. As a result, Jogaila converted to Christianity, forced the Lithuanian people to do so as well, and united two of the Teutonic Knights' most formidable enemies into a single entity when the marriage took place a year later. When Jadwiga died a month after giving birth in 1399, Jogaila (also known as Jagiello) became the sole ruler of Poland.

Almost immediately after the marriage, the Teutonic Order objected to the union, casting doubts on the sincerity of Jogaila's conversion. In addition, Jogaila's cousin Vytautus started a civil war to become sole Grand Duke of Lithuania. Through military and political machinations, Vytautus eventually achieved his goal of ruling Lithuania, but under the supervision of his kinsman King Jogaila.

The Teutonic Knights continued their attempts to break up the Polish-Lithuanian union, to little avail. Finally, in 1409 conflict over ownership of the province of Samogitia led to open war between the Order and the Polish-Lithuanian kingdom. King Jogaila and Grand Duke Vytautus agreed on a joint command, and hammered out a strategy to keep the Teutonic Knights guessing about when the two forces would descend upon Marienburg, the Order's main castle in Prussia. Both sides sent a flurry of diplomatic communiqués to various European nations, seeking monetary and direct military aid. Raids and counter-raids took place over several months.

Lands of the Teutonic Order, AD 1260-1410
Map from Wikipedia; by user S. Bollman

Finally, in June of 1410, the Polish and Lithuanian forces began to converge on the Teutonic Knights' territory. Several towns were attacked, several Teutonic castles were taken, and the Knights now knew that the two realms were cooperating. Ulrich von Jungingen, Grandmaster of the Order, brought his forces together and marched out to meet his enemy. Appeals for mercenaries also went out and were enthusiastically answered. On July 14, the Teutonic Knight army approached a large plain between the towns of Grunwald and Tannenberg, where the Polish-Lithuanian forces were encamped.

The Battle Dispositions

The exact numbers for the two armies have been guess-timated by various historians. The most generally accepted numbers are 39,000-42,000 for the Polish-Lithuanian army, and 27,000-30,000 for the Order. One historian stated that the Teutonic Knights had 51 “banners” of cavalry, with the Polish contingent consisting of 50 banners and the Lithuanians having 40 banners. [A “banner” is an inexact formation, consisting of a number of heavily armored knights and their mounted men-at-arms.]

The battle took place in modern-day Poland, then part of the Teutonic Order's lands. A large plain, intercut with streams, marshes, and forests near the villages of Grunwald [the brown squares in the upper left corner of the maps below] and Tannenberg [the similar brown figures in the upper center of the maps].

Teutonic Knights Army

The Knights, though outnumbered, had a huge advantage in discipline, training and equipment. Their cavalry was considered the finest in Europe. They also had several groups of mercenaries, contingents from Hungary and Bohemia. The Order's army was approximately 8000-10,000 infantry, and nearly 20,000 heavy cavalry and mounted men-at-arms. The Teutonic Order was drawn up with the infantry in the first of three lines, with the cavalry arrayed behind them. There was at least one cavalry reserve of 15 or 16 banners, posted far to the rear of the Order's battle line, near the village of Grunwald behind the right flank. In addition, the Order had an estimated 100 artillery pieces, probably light bombards, that threw both stone and lead projectiles.[There is some historical speculation that these were actually light handgunners, but the argument continues.]

Polish-Lithuanian Union Army

The Lithuanian army was composed of boyars – noblemen in chain, scale and/or leather armor and shield – and light horsemen in fur skin jackets, all armed mainly with light spears and bows. These men probably totaled about 15,000 altogether. The Poles and Lithuanians also had some Moravian and Czech mercenary cavalry. [Serving in the Czech force was Jan Zizka, who would later distinguish himself in the Hussite Wars (1419-1434).] Also serving with the Lithuanians were 3 banners of heavy cavalry from Ruthenia (modern-day Belarus and Ukraine), as well as 2000-3000 Tatar horse archers led by the deposed khan of the Golden Horde. The historical sources also say the Lithuanians had about 16 artillery pieces. In addition, a cavalry reserve of six banners was positioned behind the Lithuanian flank.

The Polish army, in two lines like the Order's army, was largely heavy cavalry, with their lighter armored retainers, with a portion of infantrymen wielding spears, crossbows and bows. They also had a large number of light horsemen similar to the Lithuanians, but likely from the southern Balkans. These troops could have been Serbians, Moldavians, Transylvanians and/or Wallachians. It is likely that the Poles totaled 20,000 men. All of the Polish infantry, about 4000 strong in 10 banners along with 3 banners of cavalry, were positioned as a reserve to the rear, partially hidden in a forested, marshy area. The Poles also had two cavalry reserves: one of six banners was positioned behind their left flank, with a second reserve of eight banners – including the Moravian and Bohemian mercenaries – set up to the rear of the Union army center.

Battle of Tannenberg: First Phase

According to the sources, early on the morning of July 15, 1410, neither side was willing to take the first step to start the fighting. [Some sources say this was a calculated strategm by Polish king Jagiello: to make the Germans stand in the hot sun in their armor, become dehydrated and tired. Only then would the Union army attack.] As a result, Teutonic Knights' Grandmaster von Jungingen impatiently sent messengers to the two opposing commanders. Each messenger bore a message and a sword to “assist” the Polish and Lithuanian monarchs in the coming battle. [The gesture was intended as an insult and a challenge; however, the two Grunwald Swords became national symbols of Poland.] In a letter to his wife, King Jagiello replied to the messengers, “We accept the swords you send us, and in the name of Christ, before whom all stiff-necked pride must bow, we shall do battle.”

Battle of Grunwald/Tannenberg, First Phase
[Image courtesy of http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm]

The fighting commenced at about 9:00 am, with each side attempting a cannonade of their opponent. However, while waiting for the start of hostilities, a rainstorm occurred (described variously as “a light rain” or a “heavy storm”) which dampened the gunpowder of both sides sufficiently to make their pieces useless for the remainder of the battle. [Several sources state that the Order's artillery only got off two shots.] Then, a brief exchange of bow fire was followed by the charge of the first line of the Lithuanian forces on the right wing against the Order's left.

The Lithuanian boyars and light cavalry, along with the Tatar horse archers, defeated the Teutonic infantry after a sharp, but apparently brief fight, overrunning the artillery as well. [1] As the German infantry fled, the second line of the Order's left flank charged the Lithuanian/Tatar horsemen. One source says that the Order's heavy cavalry charged through their own infantry, inflicting “friendly fire” casualties. After an equally brief exchange of blows, the Tatars retreated. They were quickly pursued by three or four banners of mercenary knights fighting with the Order. [2]

[Some historians claim that the rout of the Tatars and Lithuanians was a “feigned retreat,” similar to tactics used by various Central Asian steppe armies, including the Mongols. Further, Grand Duke Vytautus had been defeated in battle with the Golden Horde in 1399 due to the use of this tactic, and nearly lost his life. It is suggested that he was using this same tactic against the Teutonic knights, but after 600 years, the jury is still out on this subject.]

Soon after the retreat of the Tatars, Grandmaster von Jungingen, situated in the Order's center, ordered the rest of his second line of Teutonic Knights to make a general advance against the first line of the Polish center and left wing. Some sources said that when the two sides charged and met each other, the sound could be heard for miles. Despite extended heavy fighting, neither side could make headway, resulting in a stalemate in the center and Polish left/German right. [3] Meanwhile, the Teutonic Order's infantry routs to the the vicinity of its camp, which is to the rear of the Order's reserves, just outside the town of Grunfeld. [4]

The remainder of the Order's left-wing cavalry began to push back the Lithuanian forces. Hoping to stabilize the situation, Vytautus ordered his reserve forward, [5] but the Teutonic heavy cavalry and their mercenary allies slowly pushed the Lithuanians and their followers back.

Battle of Tannenberg: Second Phase

Battle of Grunwald/Tannenberg, Second Phase
[Image courtesy of http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm]

From his position with his bodyguard in the rear, King Jogaila ordered both of his cavalry reserves forward. The left cavalry reserve split, with one part sent to reinforce the army's center, and the other sent to add weight to the left flank – which was apparently slowly pushing back the Order's right flank. Then, the king ordered his central cavalry reserve forward, coordinating with the second line of his center to move to their right to stabilize the deteriorating situation on the army's right wing. [1]

On the Union army's right, the Lithuanian forces were still being pushed back, at a nearly 90 degree angle to their original disposition. The heavier armor and iron discipline of the Teutonic Knights compelled the majority of the Lithuanian horsemen, accompanied by their Grand Duke, to retreat. The Order's mercenary allies pursued part of the Lithuanians into the forested marshy area in the Union army's rear. The German knights, by contrast, resisted that temptation and began to regroup, eventually hoping to launch an assault on the rear of the Polish forces. However, that hope was temporarily halted by the Bohemian mercenaries re-joining the fight, after temporarily falling back with the initial disintegration of the Lithuanians. [2]

Meanwhile, the Order's mercenary cavalry pursuing the remnants of the Lithuanians into the forest received a nasty surprise: part of the Polish infantry and cavalry reserve hidden in the woods attacked their flank. As a result, the Lithuanians halted, rallied and joined the attack on the mercenaries. After hard fighting, these mercenary horsemen were wiped out. [3] Also, the mercenary knights chasing the Tatars broke off their pursuit, returned and joined the attack on the Poles. [4]

With most of the Lithuanian forces gone, the Order left wing sought to attack the Polish center, putting more pressure on those forces. However, the Ruthenian heavy cavalry fought toe-to-toe with the German knights. As a result, one of the Ruthenian banners was completely annihilated, but their sacrifice began to stabilize the army's right wing, allowing Polish reinforcements to enter the fray. [5] At about the same time, the German horsemen pursuing the remaining Lithuanians regrouped and added their weight to the Order's assault on the Polish center. [6]

Banner of the Chamberlain of Kraków, which
functioned as the Polish-Lithuanian army's main standard
Image courtesy of http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk

At this point in the battle, the hard-pressed Polish center held its own against the German hammer blows. The Polish forces were under the command of the Chamberlain of Kraków, with King Jogaila in the rear with the infantry reserve. Under constant attack, the Chamberlain and his standard bearer were each wounded, and the Chamberlain's banner – functioning as the army's standard – was briefly captured by the Germans. Thinking the Polish king slain and the battle won, the Teutonic cavalry surged forward with renewed vigor.[Nearly all the sources state that, at this point in the fighting, the German knights began singing, “Christ ist erstanden” (Christ is risen), probably a standard victory anthem of sorts of the Order.] The crisis, however, was quickly averted as Polish reinforcements from the second line re-captured the banner and stabilized the Polish line once more.

A large portion of the Lithuanian forces that were not engaged were now routing from the battlefield. Many returned home and erroneously reported the battle lost and both King Jogaila and Grand Duke Vytautus slain. [7]

Battle of Tannenberg: Final Phase

Battle of Grunwald/Tannenberg, Final Phase
[Image courtesy of http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm]

After 5-6 hours of brutal combat, the battle was reaching its climax. Amazingly, the right flanks of both armies were under heavy pressure and being forced back. The Teutonic Grandmaster, hoping for a final throw of the dice, ordered his entire cavalry reserve – 15 or 16 banners – to deploy on the left flank, ready to add their attacks to the fighting there. One of these German banners ventured close to the hiding place of King Jogaila and his Polish infantry reserve. The king quickly ordered his banner furled, seeking to avoid giving away his position. One German knight, however, saw this and charged into the woods to attack the Polish monarch. A duel took place, quickly won by Jogaila.

Rallying his Lithuanians, Grand Duke Vytautus maneuvered his cavalry behind the German left flank. At that moment, the Duke launched a surprise, devastating attack on the rear of the Order's left wing, At this time, the Tatar horsemen rallied, returned to the battlefield, and joined the Lithuanians assault on the Order's left wing. [1] King Jogaila made the move he was waiting for: he led his remaining infantry and his bodyguard banner in an attack on the left flank of the German army. [2,3]

At the same time, the Polish center broke through the Teutonic center. Portions of the Polish center encircled both the German right and its center.Now, the Teutonic Knights' army was broken into two fragments, and each fragment was surrounded. [4] Many of the Germans panicked, seeing their army broken apart. Seeing his force disintegrating before his eyes, Grandmaster von Jungingen ordered a fighting retreat.

With the encirclement of the Teutonic Order's forces, the Germans and their allies lost all hope. Many began to surrender wholesale, but the Polish infantry apparently had their blood up and many Germans were simply slaughtered out of hand. [Even at this time period, if a knight surrendered during a battle, he was usually taken prisoner and held for ransom, a very lucrative business venture during the Middle Ages.] In the final stages of the battle, the Teutonic Grandmaster was surrounded by enemy infantry, pulled from his horse and slain. Some of the Germans and their allies retreated to their camp near the town of Grunwald. Trying to form a wagon fort, the Germans' camp followers turned on their masters. The remnants of the German army retreated to their capital of Marienburg to await the attack of the victorious Poles and Lithuanians.

Aftermath

The final casualties are a bit speculative, but we do know the Teutonic Order forces were almost completely annihilated. The Order sustained about 8000 men killed, and another 14,000 taken prisoner. [Official Order records show that only 1427 of the Teutonic Order's soldiers returned to Marienburg to claim their pay.] Many of the prisoners were released, as they were not knights and therefore would not be worth ransoming. One western mercenary, Holbracht von Loym, reported that he had to pay a ransom amounting to 62 pounds of silver. Depending on the historical sources, between 200 and 400 Teutonic brother-knights were killed in the battle.

Polish-Lithuanian casualties amounted to about 5000 killed and a further 8000 wounded. The Union army then attacked various German fortresses throughout Prussia. Some surrendered without a fight, but their capital at Marienburg sustained a 55-day siege until their enemy left on September 19. Peace was not achieved until February,1411 at the Peace of Thorn. The province of Samogitia changed hands – returning to Lithuania. In addition, the Teutonic Order was required to pay a huge indemnity (44,000 pounds of silver) to the victors in four annual installments. This amount (equivalent to £850,000) was estimated to be ten times the annual income of King Henry V of England. When the Order raised taxes for its Prussian landholders, the added financial burden caused several revolts. With the great loss of life amongst the Order's ranks, they found it necessary to begin hiring more mercenaries, another drain on the organization's treasury. The slow decline of the Teutonic Knights had begun…

1920 election propaganda poster, with headline “Save the East”
It shows a Teutonic Knight (representing Germany) being
threatened by a Polish soldier (on left) and a socialist (behind the Knight).
The poster was produced by the conservative German National People's Party

Footnote #1: The Order's loss at this battle contributed to 20th century Nazi propaganda of being “stabbed in the back” (see poster above). One secular member of the Order withdrew his banner from the battle line, causing the German forces to think that the battle was lost.

Footnote #2: This battle is known by several names. The Germans call it Tannenberg, the Poles Grunwald and the Lithuanians Zalgiris.

Footnote #3: Germany exacted a small measure of revenge for their loss in the opening months of the First World War. On August 26-30, 1914, at a site 20 miles from the fifteenth century battle, German forces defeated two Russian armies, killing or wounding 78,000 Russians and capturing a further 92,000 men.

Footnote #4: Like many other works, the Battle of Grunwald (the painting at the top of this post) was hidden during the occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany. It was one of two artworks that topped the "most wanted" paintings list made by the Nazis, who engaged in a systematic physical destruction of all artifacts of Polish culture. Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels offered a bounty of 10 million marks for it. Several members of the Polish Underground were executed by the Germans when they refused to divulge its location despite interrogation and torture. The painting survived the war years hidden near Lublin. It required some restoration from 2010-2012, and was returned to the National Museum in Warsaw, where it resides today.

Footnote #5: On Thursday, July 15, 2010 as many as 400 Belarussian students took to the streets of the capital city of Minsk and began a pillow fight to commemorate the participation of the Ruthenian cavalry at Grunwald. However, baton-wielding riot police broke up the gathering and arrested 50 students.

Footnote #6: In addition to the usual Wikipedia sources, I made use of one website more than any other to compile this post. The site also contains three excellent maps of the three phases of the battle, which I have reproduced above. If you are really interested, please go tohttp://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm to see more. The author of this site also goes into detail about the composition of the armies, more detail than I would dare try.

 Siggurdsson's blog