Today in Military History: October 19, 202 BC:Battle of Zama: Romans Defeat Carthaginians to End Second Punic War

 by Siggurdsson

 

 

"Battle of Zama" by Henri-Paul Motte (1890)
(Unless otherwise indicated, all illustrations are courtesy of Wikipedia)

Today in Military History: October 19, 202 BC
Our mini-history lesson for today takes us back to the late third century BC, to the climax of the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian Empire. After the great general of Carthage Hannibal took the war to the Italian homeland, he failed to capture Rome. So Rome returned the favor, and drew Hannibal and his veteran forces back to defend its capital.

Background

Map of the western Mediterranean, circa 264 BC

Rome and Carthage fought their first war from 264 until 241. It was an inevitable conflict, as both nations were seeking to expand their power throughout the western Mediterranean Sea. Rome was the "new kid on the block," and was essentially a land locked nation which had brought nearly the entire Italian peninsula under its control. By contrast, the men of Carthage used their navy and merchant fleet to expand from their homeland in what is today Tunisia to control the North African coast from what is today Libya westward to Morocco, southern Spain, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and nearly all of Sicily.
The two nations came to grips over the island of Sicily. Without getting into all the details, Rome and Carthage backed two differing city-states and consequently came into contact. The Romans had the superior army, while Carthage’s navy was second to none. If fact, at the start of the First Punic War, Rome had no navy. That did not stop the "Masters of the Tiber;" the Romans adapted their mastery of land fighting to naval warfare, and after 23 years of war, Carthage agreed to a truce.
However, the truce was never approved by the Carthaginian ruling body, and it planted the seeds for further confrontation between the two nations (not unlike the Treaty of Versailles ending the "Great War" and eventually leading to the Second World War.) The truce held for 22 years, when Carthaginian military successes in Iberia (modern-day Spain) sparked jealousy and animosity from the Romans. Hamilcar Barca, a very successful Carthaginian general, became a strategos, or military governor of the Iberian lands.

Hannibal Barca, engraving of Capua bust, artist unknown
Currently in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy

In 219, Hannibal Barca, son of Hamilcar, had assumed the role of strategos for the Iberian lands. He then attacked a nearby city which was under the protection of Rome. The Romans tooks his action very badly, and demanded Hannibal be punished. Carthage did not repudiate his attack on the city, and the Second Punic War began.
Rather than waiting for the Romans to attack him, Hannibal took the war to the Romans. With an army of Iberians, Gauls, Libyans, Numidians, some native Carthaginians and a number of North African elephants, Hannibal marched through Iberia and southern Gaul. This force – estimated to be 28,000 infantry, 6000 cavalry, and 30 elephants by the time it reached Italy – crossed the Alps with a number of disadvantages: it made the crossing in late autumn-early winter; it was under constant attack by native mountain tribes; and it had no supply line back to Iberia. The Romans were expecting them, but not so soon; in fact, the main Roman armies were still in their winter quarters.
The unexpected early arrival was just the first of a number of surprises that Hannibal and his men pulled on the Romans. Hannibal and his army won a number of victories against the previously near-invincible Roman legions. Probably the low point of the war for Rome was the battle of Cannae (August 2, 216 BC), where a Roman army of over 86,000 men was annihilated. This defeat threw Rome into a frenzy, and bolstered their resolve to defeat Hannibal.
The Carthaginian strategos carried the war throughout the Italian peninsula. Lacking siege engines to attack the walls of Rome, Hannibal sought to break the alliances between Rome and its allies. He succeeded mainly in southern Italy, were many of the cities were former Greek colonies. Hannibal received some reinforcements – from disaffected Italian cities and even some from Carthage. But it was not enough to finally defeat the Roman army. It was not until 203, when Carthage was threatened by a Roman invasion, that Hannibal finally left Italy, unable to achieve his aim of bringing down Rome.
Prelude to the Battle
During the course of Hannibal’s marching up and down the Italian peninsula, the Roman Senate was constantly debating how to meet the threat of this foreign invader. Roman armies were raised, trained, and sent out to confront the Carthaginian forces, most of which were destroyed by the invaders. Various strategies were tried. One that kept the invaders at bay was the Fabian strategy.
Named for Roman politician and general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator, pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition and indirection. While avoiding decisive battles, the side employing this strategy harasses its enemy through skirmishes to cause attrition, disrupt supply lines and affect morale. In addition, a "scorched earth" policy is sometimes adopted, burning of farms and orchards and poisoning of water supplies to deny them to the enemy. Employment of this strategy implies that the side adopting it believes time is on its side. However, the Fabian strategy did not achieve quick results, and eventually Fabius was relieved of his military command. His replacement led the Roman army which was destroyed at Cannae.

Bust of Publius Cornelius Scipio, artist unknown
In the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy

Finally, the Roman Senate decided that the best way to take down Carthage was to send a Roman army to invade Spain and cut off Hannibal’s base. For commander of this proposed invasion, the Senate in 211 unanimously elected Publius Cornelius Scipio. Scipio was a member of one of the major families of the Roman republic. He devoted his life to politics, but also enlisted in the army when Hannibal invaded Italy. Within five years of arriving in Spain, the Carthaginians had been defeated and driven out.
On the heels of the success of his Hispanic campaign, Scipio was voted into several prestigious public offices, and was appointed commander of Roman forces on the island of Sicily. He also began formulating plans for a masterstroke: he felt the best way to end the war was to invade the Carthaginian homeland, draw Hannibal out of Italy, and defeat the Carthaginian warlord once and for all.
When rumors of Scipio’s plans reached the Senate, a group of Roman officials – including Quintus Fabius – journeyed to the island to investigate. At first the noble gentlemen were reluctant to approve the raising of funds or the conscription of soldiers for the invasion. Scipio finally prevailed, but with some limitation. He was only allowed to use the soldiers he had available to him on Sicily; most of those men were the remnants of legions that had lost to Hannibal at Cannae. [Essentially, their assignment to Sicily was considered punishment.] Also, Rome would not assign any funds or supplies to the venture. Scipio managed to train his soldiers, and even raise some new troops to fill his needs.
[Scipio informed all the noble families of Sicily he was drafting them into a new cavalry corps. When the Sicilian nobles objected to this servitude, he gave them the option of hiring a substitute and providing a horse, armor, weapons, and equipment for the recruit. In this way, Scipio raised and trained a new and effective cavalry unit.]
Scipio landed his army in North Africa in 204, and immediately besieged the city of Utica, one of the primary cities of the Carthaginian homeland. The Roman invasion army spent the next two years ravaging Carthage’s territory, and fought a major battle in 203 where the Carthaginian army was badly defeated. Shortly afterward, Hannibal and his army was recalled to met the Roman threat.
Realizing that the end was near, the Carthaginian senate requested treaty terms from Scipio. The terms given to them were unacceptable, and in 202 Hannibal resolved to fight the Roman invaders. He found good ground for the confrontation, which was a large plain near a town later called Zama Regia, 80 miles southwest of Carthage. Scipio marched his army to meet the Carthaginian strategos.

Initial dispositions, battle of Zama, October 19, 202 BC
[Image by Mohammed Adil, courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page]

Roman Army
Scipio’s force consisted of between 29,000 and 30,000 infantry. In addition, the Roman force boasted 6500 cavalry, both heavy Roman-Sicilian and newly-allied Numidian horsemen under their prince Masinissa. The Romans were arranged in three lines. The first line consisted of hastati, who were lesser experienced legionaries. The second line was comprised of the principes, the more experienced and better armed and armored legionaries. Finally, the third line was the triarii, the truly veteran legionaries wielding spears. Finally, the Romans deployed velites, skirmishers who would play an integral role in the upcoming battle.
General Scipio deployed his troops with the Carthaginian war elephants in mind. He arrayed all three lines so that there were wide corridors running through the army. From previous experience, he knew that charging elephants seldom deviated from their straight-ahead charge. In these gaps Scipio placed the velites, who had the single job of dealing with the elephants. In addition, the Numidian cavalry under Masinissa was placed on the right wing – facing the Numidian horsemen still loyal to Carthage. The Roman heavy cavalry commanded by Caius Laelius, a close friend of Scipio, was sited on the left wing to oppose the Carthaginian cavalry.
Carthaginian Army
Hannibal’s army was a conglomeration of mercenaries, new raw recruits, and veterans of the Italian campaign, totaling 36,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, and 80 elephants. The Carthaginian army was also deployed in three lines, with the first consisting of mixed infantry from Gaul, Liguria (modern-day northwest Italy), and the Balearic Islands. The second line comprised newly-raised Libyan and Carthaginian citizen levies. In the third line Hannible placed his veterans, Carthaginians, Iberians, Libyans, and allied Bruttians (southern Graeco-Italians). His war elephants – the largest corps of pachyderms Hannibal every deployed – were arranged in the front of his army.
Battle of Zama

Battle of Zama, opening phase
[Image by Mohammed Adil, courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page]

The battle opened with the charge of the war elephants. As they closed with the Roman front line, the velites thew their javelins, pricking the huge beasts like swarms of mosquitoes. Then, the Romans used a new weapon: across the battlefield, dozens of war trumpets were sounded, the cacophany disconcerting the large creatures. Some of the elephants turned away, plunging into the Carthaginian left wing Numidian horsemen, disrupting the unit. The rest of the war elephants were successfully herded down the gaps in the Roman lines to the rear echelons of the army, where they were dispatched by the velites and the spear-wielding triarii.
As the attack of the tuskers was broken up, the second act of the battle commenced. Both the Roman heavy cavalry and their allied Numidian light horse charged their counterparts, who counter-charged in answer. After a brief struggle, both Carthaginian wings fled before the Roman cavalry, apparently part of Hannibal’s battleplan to neutralize the Roman horsemen.

Battle of Zama, second phase
[Image by Mohammed Adil, courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page]

Scipio now marched with his center towards the Carthaginian center, which was under Hannibal’s direct command. The Carthaginian strategos moved forward with only two lines and the third line of veterans was kept in reserve. After a close contest, the Carthaginian first line was pushed back by the Roman hastati. Hannibal ordered his second line not to allow the first line in their ranks, going so far as to order the citizen recruits to level their spears at the retreating mercenaries. The bulk of them managed to position themselves on the wings of the second line on Hannibal's instructions. Hannibal now charged with his second line. A furious struggle ensued and the Roman hastati were pushed back with heavy losses. Scipio reinforced the hastati with the second line principes.

Battle of Zama, third phase
[Image by Mohammed Adil, courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page]

With these additional troops, the Roman front renewed their attack and defeated Hannibal's second line. Again, the second line was not allowed to merge with the third line and was forced to the wings along with the first line. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian cavalry continued carrying out Hannibal's instructions. Once they were far enough away, they turned and attacked the Roman cavalry but were routed in the end.
At this point there was a pause in the battle as both sides redeployed their troops. Scipio played for time as he redeployed his troops in a single line with the hastati in the middle, the principes in the inner wings, and the triarii on the outer wings. Hannibal waited for Scipio to attack. The resulting clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. However, Scipio was able to rally his men. [Both commanders were seeking to extend their battle lines, in hopes of eventually outflanking their opponent. This was one of Hannibal’s major tenets in his battlefield successes against the Romans.]
Finally, The battle turned in Scipio's favor as the Roman cavalry returned to the battlefield and attacked the Carthaginian line from behind. The Carthaginian infantry was encircled and quickly annihilated. Thousands of Carthaginians, including Hannibal, managed to escape the slaughter.

Battle of Zama, final phase
[Image by Mohammed Adil, courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page]

Aftermath
Casualty figures are mostly speculative for this battle. The Carthaginian force likely suffered some 20,000 killed, and 15,000 captured. These latter men were sent to the slave markets. Roman casualties are equally iffy; one source claims only 500 dead and 4000 wounded. Another sources cites 2500 dead, which I believe is a bit more realistic.

Footnote #1: The Carthaginian senate sued for peace, and they were given very harsh terms. They included: a) Carthage must turn all but 10 of its warships to Rome; b) that Carthage fight no war against anyone without Rome’s approval; c) payment of an indemnity in the amount of 10,000 silver talents (approximately 500,000 pounds); and d) all of Carthage’s elephants were turned over to Rome.
Footnote #2: For his successful campaign ending the Second Punic War, Scipio received the honorific of Africanus.
Footnote #3: Hannibal survived the battle of Zama, and was even elected to the position of chief magistrate of the Carthaginian senate. However, the Romans were determined to make an example of Hannibal and demanded his surrender. Hannibal went into voluntary exile in the eastern Mediterranean, for a time he toiled as an advisor to Antiochus III ("the Great") of Syria. Constantly hounded by the Romans, Hannibal final took poison, dying somewhere between 183 and 181 BC.
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