Battle of Leuctra: Boeotian-Theban Army Defeats Spartans

July 6th, 2012 by Siggurdsson

 

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Reconstruction of a classic Greek hoplite phalanx
(Unless otherwise indicated, all illustrations are from Wikipedia)

Today in Military History: July 6, 371 BC
We go back to ancient Greece (or Hellas as the natives called it) for a battle which effectively broke the Spartan hegemony over the entire peninsula. It involved an innovative strategy which showed that the Spartans could be beaten, and beaten badly.
Background
Since the end of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), the Spartans had established themselves as the dominant force in the entire Greek peninsula. Prior to the war, the Spartans were considered one of the preeminent land force in Greece, while their rival city-state Athens was the leading naval power in the land. After the inevitable confrontation, the Spartans learned to fight on the sea and beat the Athenians and their allies at their own game. Athens lost all her overseas colonies, most of its navy was disbanded, its city walls were demolished, and the Delian League which Athens had created was disbanded.
For the next three decade, the Spartans effectively ruled over Greece. However, in 378 a new confederation of maritime states – including Athens – banded together to oppose the Spartan hegemony. In addition, the people of Thebes revolted against the Spartan-backed government and ejected the Spartan garrison. Immediately afterward, the Thebans began to organize a confederacy of their own. Led by the statesman and general Epaminondas, a Boeotian (pronounced bee-OO-shen) league was formed, which followed the Theban lead in all things political and military.

Idealized statue of Epiminondas,
Stowe House, Buckinghamshire, England

The Spartans launched a retaliatory attack against the Boeotians, but the war dragged on without any real resolution until early 371. A peace conference was arranged to occur in Sparta. The terms were generally agreed to by both sides. However, Epaminondas provoked Spartan anger by first signing the treaty in the name of just the city of Thebes. The next day he asked the permission of the Spartans to instead sign on behalf of the entire Boeotian confederacy. The Spartan king refused, saying that each city should sign on its own to represent its independence. Epaminondas replied that if that were so, then the other cities of Laconia (the area of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth directly controlled by Sparta) should be allowed to sign for themselves, and not allow Sparta to sign for them. Angered, the Spartan co-ruler Agesilaus struck the Thebans' name from the treaty; both sides then left the conference and prepared for renewed hostilities.
Rather than take the expected, easy route into Boeotia, the Spartans marched over the rough hills and took the fortress of Creusis (along with twelve Theban warships) before the Thebans were aware of their presence. It was here that the Peloponnesian army led by the Spartans –and their co-ruler Cleombratus – was confronted by a Boeotian levy led by Thebes. Initially the six Boeotian generals (i.e. the Boeotarchs) present were divided as to whether to offer battle, with Epaminondas being the main advocate in favor of battle. Only when a seventh arrived who sided with Epaminondas was the decision made. In spite of inferior numbers and the doubtful loyalty of his Boeotian allies, Epaminondas and his Theban warriors would offer battle on the plain before the town of Leuctra, located near the larger town of Thespiae.
Ancient Hoplite Warfare
The Greek poleis (city-states) of this era used a system of warfare that can be traced to at least 650 BC, perhaps slightly further back to the eighth century BC. In most of the cities of Hellas, military duty was required of all citizens (Athens had a cutoff of age 60) for short periods of time. This included some drill and, of course, when war threatened the citizens were called to arms. The major exception to this was Sparta, the leading city of Laconia (from which the Spartans Greek name of Lacedaemon, or in Greek Λάκεδαίμον, was derived). Military service to the Spartan state was mandatory and began at birth. The Spartans dominated the southernmost portion of Hellas for centuries.

4th century BC Greek hoplite, wielding a dory (spear)

Hoplites were the heavy-armed and -armored soldiers of the individual polis. The word "hoplite" is likely derived from "hoplon," the shield which each soldier carried. It was large (3.1 foot), hemispherical wood-and-bronze shield. It functioned as both defensive protection and as an offensive weapon (I will explain the latter function in a bit).
Depending on the financial circumstances of the individual, the hoplite might wear body armor as simple as layers of linen – possibly reinforced by bronze plates – or the more elaborate "muscle" bronze breastplate, with armor to protect the lower legs (greaves), and a helmet for the head. There were various forms of helmets used. One of the most popular was the Corinthian helmet (see below), which provided good protection for the head and face. Its one major drawback was that hearing was badly impaired.

Corinthian helmet, early fifth century BC
(From State Collection of Antiques Museum, Munich, Germany)

Each Greek army had a simple formation: the phalanx, a large block of infantry. Each city's hoplites would line up in long lines, with a depth of between 8-12 men deep. In most formations, the most experienced or elite soldiers would be placed in the right side of the formation, which was considered a place of honor. Also, there was a practical reason for these experienced troops' placement. Hoplites carried their shields on their left shoulders. During their forward advance in battle, the soldier to their left would tend to drift to the right to use the shield of their neighbor for protection. As a result, the entire formation involuntarily began a slight rightward shift. Therefore, elite hoplites from one polis or another was placed on the right side of the line to suppress this drift.

Typical shield (hoplon) of 6th-3rd century BC, modern reconstruction
Note the capital L [lambda], representing Sparta
(Image courtesy of www.larp.com)

Each army approached its opponent at a walk, or a slow run at best. Once opposing armies made contact, the attack could be compared to a rugby scrum, with each "player" armed with a spear. In order for each force to keep contact, ranks behind the front would begin pushing with their hoplon against the back of the man to his front. Once a hoplite's spear became useless, he usually wielded a secondary weapon, usually a shortsword. When one or the other flank of an army broke and ran, the battle was usually over.
Most Greek armies also had contingents of other troop types. Usually small contingents of peltasts were present; these were light-armed javelineers, slingers, or possible bowmen who acted as skirmishers to disrupt the enemy's formations. [Many ancient historians often did not even report the presence of peltasts in a Greek army, faithfully reporting the number of hoplites but ignoring the others.] Finally, small cavalry units were sometimes present, usually to guard the flanks of the phalanx, or to pursue a routed enemy. Seldom did either the peltasts or cavalry play a major role in a particular battle. [There is a battle recorded in 391 BC where a force composed entirely of peltasts defeated a Spartan regiment, killing 250 of the 600 Spartans.]

Typical Greek peltast, with 3 javelins & shield

Preparations for Battle
The Spartan led army has been estimated by modern historians to be about 10,000–11,000 strong, with a contingent of about 800 peltasts and 1000 cavalry. The historian Xenophon (he of the famous work named Anabasis – look it up!) stated that the Spartan horsemen were basically raw recruits unused to fighting on horseback. Cleombratus arranged his hoplites in their usual fashion, with his line in a slight crescent shape, with the Spartans (including his 300-strong personal bodyguard, called the hippeis) in the right side of the line. Spartan soldiers comprised the majority of the right wing of the army, while allied troops made up the rest of the line. Small groups of his cavalry were deployed in front of the infantry – a bit out-of-the-ordinary – and the peltasts were stationed initially on the left flank of the army.
[Spartan hoplites could be easily discerned in any Greek army. First, each man wore a dark red tunic under his armor and a red cloak. This was supposed to keep an enemy from seeing that he had inflicted a wound on his Spartan enemy. Also, each Spartan hoplite carried a hoplon with a large Greek capital letter "L" (lambda) on its face (see the illustration above). Histories claim that when a Spartan became a man and eligible for inclusion in the Spartan army, the final act of the ceremony was when his mother handed him his hoplon, which she herself had constructed. She then gave him the instruction, "Return with your shield or upon it." It was considered an act of cowardice for a Spartan soldier to throw away his shield to escape a rout.]
The Boeotian force is thought to have comprised approximately 6,000-7,000 soldiers. There were perhaps 1500 cavalry, and a similar number of peltasts. Knowing that his army was badly outnumbered, Epimanondas made some important decisions that are today still regarded as evolutionary changes in military theory.
First, Epimanondas placed his more numerous cavalry in place directly oppose the Spartan horsemen. Next, the Theban boeotarch did two revolutionary things. He placed his best troops, his native Thebans, in the LEFT flank of the Boeotian line, to directly oppose the Spartans. Then, he lined his Thebans up with 50 ranks of hoplites, rather than the usual 8-12 ranks. He hoped to achieve a quick knockout blow on the best hoplites in Hellas. Further, he placed the Thebans most elite troops, the Sacred Band, in the far left portion of the Theban alignment. These men were given the special assignment of finding and killing the Spartan general.
Epimanondas's final order was to the commanders of his allied soldiers in the rest of the hoplite line. With so many of the Thebans gathered in the left flank, the Theban center and right were under-strength. He directed these two divisions to deploy slightly to the rear of the Theban left (see the second map below) and of each other. He instructed the other leaders to hold their place in line until the Thebans had contacted the Spartans. In fact, he further told them, if the Spartan army got too close to them, the Boeotian allies should slowly fall back. Then, once the Spartans had been broken, the Boeotians should advance to the attack.
Battle of Leuctra

Battle of Leuctra, First Phase (Red is the Spartans, Blue is Thebans)
(Map courtesy of www.emersonkent.com and the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy)

The opening move of the battle took place when the Spartan peltasts move up from their flank position and showered missiles on a group of Boeotian camp followers who were trying to leave the battlefield. The result was that many of these camp followers grabbed any weapon they could and joined the Boeotian peltasts clustered in front of the Theban battle line. Next, the Theban cavalry attacked the Spartan horsemen, very quickly gaining the upper hand. As a result, the Spartan cavalry were pushed back through their own phalanx, particularly disrupting the Spartan left flank. Seeing the confusion of the Spartan phalanx, Epimanondas ordered his left to advance on the Spartans.
At this point in the battle, most of the peltasts on each side probably let loose a last shower of missiles and retired behind their respective armies. As the Theban left began drawing closer at a run – rather than the usual walk – King Cleombratus saw the different alignment of the enemy line. Realizing the danger to his own position, he frantically sent orders to nearby divisions for reinforcements to meet the left-handed haymakers of Theban hoplites targeting his flank unit. The balance of the Spartan force continued its forward advance. Too late, the Theban hoplites slammed into the Spartans, and the scrum of battle began.
The noise of battle engulfed every man; the clash of metal on metal, the stabbing of the spears, the irresistible pressure of the shield of the man behind you pushing you forward, here a spear piercing a man's throat, there a shield rim impacting the chin of his enemy, the shouting of orders, the screams of dying men. It was a controlled chaos unlike anything these men would know.

Battle of Leuctra, Second Phase
(Map courtesy of www.emersonkent.com and the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy)

The numerical superiority of the Thebans quickly began to grind down the Spartan bodyguards. Seeing an opening, the Sacred Band's commander Pelopides ordered his soldiers forward to attack the Spartan general Cleombratus. After several minutes of fierce fighting, the Spartan king lay dead. Despite the forward momentum of the Thebans, the Spartan hippeis fought a desperate battle to recover the body of their deceased leader, finally succeeding. Once that occurred, the Spartan right crumbled. Seeing that, the Boeotian center and right began a quick movement forward. At about the same time, the remainder of the Spartan army – comprising mostly allied troops – began to lose heart. Shortly after, just as the Boeotian right was prepared to impact the Spartan left, the entire Spartan army crumbled and routed back to their fortified camp. After no more than two hours, the battle of Leuctra was over.

Battle of Leuctra: Final Phase
(Map courtesy of www.emersonkent.com and the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy)

Aftermath
Shortly after reaching their camp, the Spartans sent a herald to the Theban camp, asking for a truce to recover the dead. Epimanondas agreed, but he made one stipulation: the Spartan allies would be allowed to recover and bury their dead first, then the Spartans. This was done to keep the Spartans from covering up (pun intended) the number of their dead. The Spartan army lost at least 1000 men dead according to Xenophon (another historian claimed 4000+), while the Theban-Boeotian force lost about 300 men.

Footnote #1: The manpower losses to Sparta, while not truly significant, were nothing compared to the loss of prestige the Spartans suffered because of this battle. Over the next decade, the Spartans sustained further battlefield losses which broke the Spartan hegemony over Greece. As a result, Sparta was relegated to secondary status.
Footnote #2: Some modern historians claim Sparta's loss at Leuctra directly contributed to the eventual takeover of Greece by Philip of Macedon in 338.