Today in Military History: October 1, 331 BC: Battle of Gaugamela: Alexander the Great Defeats King Darius of Persia

 

"The Defeat of Darius (339-330 BC) by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), 331 BC"
Oil on canvas by Francois Louis Joseph Watteau (1758-1823)
(Illustration courtesy of www.wikigallery.org )

Today in Military History: October 1, 331 BC
For today's military history post, I present a battle involving the undefeated Macedonian ruler who helped spread Greek culture throughout the Middle East to Egypt to India. This clash of armies in the fourth century BC was his masterpiece (in my humble opinion), and guaranteed the collapse of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Background
The Persian Empire at this time was ruled by Darius III. Having ruled the Persian Empire since 336, Darius was 49 years old, and is described by many ancient historians as a weak, indecisive ruler with a seeming lack of ambition. He inherited a kingdom with rebellious satraps (governors), and a large number of disaffected people.
When Alexander and his Greco-Macedonian allied army invaded Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) in 334, Darius did not regard the invaders as a significant threat. He put his trust in the local governors to stop this threat from across the Aegean Sea, staying in his capital of Persepolis. Unfortunately, Alexander won the first battle of his Asian expedition at the Granicus River. [For more information on this battle, please visit my earlier Burn Pit posts: Battle of Granicus and Battle of Granicus Part II .]
In November of 333, Darius gathered an army and nearly cut off the supply line of Alexander's forces, before losing the battle of Issus. Though greatly outnumbered, the boy-king of Macedon inflicted a severe defeat on the Persians; Alexander even came close to personally killing King Darius himself, but the Persian king fled the battlefield to continue the resistance to the invaders.

Reconstruction of mosaic found in ruins of city of Pompeii (now on display at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy); it depicts Alexander (bare-headed rider on left) pursuing King Darius of Persia (in chariot right of center) in the latter stages of the battle of Issus (333 BC)

Alexander next concentrated on capturing a number of major seaports along the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor and Syria, both to solidify his supply lines and rear, and to deny the use of those ports to the Persian navy. He was delayed for some time besieging the city of Tyre, then moved on to Egypt, where he met no resistance. In fact, during his sojourn in Egypt, Alexander was hailed as the descendant of Amun-Ra, the Egyptian sun-god. [For a guy who already believed in his own god-like background, this honor surely puffed up his ego a little more.]
Prelude to the Battle

Bust of Alexander the Great, ca. 2nd – 1st century BC
On display in the British Museum, London, UK

Finally, Alexander set out from Egypt in the late summer of 331. The Macedonians marched through Palestine and Syria, into the Assyrian portion of the Persian kingdom (what is today northern Iraq). The army crossed both the Euphrates and Tigris rivers with little difficulty. [Shortly after crossing the Tigris, there was a near total eclipse of the moon, which was taken by the Macedonians as a good omen.] Alexander's forces then began following the east-west Persian Royal Road which spanned most of the length of the empire. Shortly afterward, Alexander began receiving reports of a large Persian army gathering to intercept his invading force. Those intelligence messages indicated that the Persian army was posted on a large, featureless plain near the town of Arbela. The Macedonian monarch ordered his army to march toward the Persian host, making plans for the battle as they continued.
As the Macedonians approached the site of the coming conflict, a Persian messenger was brought to Alexander. The herald brought an offer of peace from Darius. The Achaemenid monarch offered to give Alexander half of the Persian Empire, 10,000 talents of gold (1 talent was enough to equip and pay the crew of a Greek warship for a year), and the hand of one his daughters; all this Darius offered to Aleaxander if he would cease his invasion and return home. Alexander rejected the offer out-of-hand; he *already* owned half the Persian Empire, and wanted to acquire the remaining half, he had no interest in money; and, since he had already conquered half his empire, Darius would have no choice but to marry off his daughter. The general Parmenion, who had served Alexander's father Philip – said, "If I were Alexander, I would accept." Alexander smoothly replied, "So would I, if I were Parmenion."

Map of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) showing site of battle

The Greco-Macedonian army arrived at the plain on about September 29, and spent the next day reconnoitering the area. As the Persians waited for the enemy to attack, King Darius ordered his troops to flatten the plain even more, to allow him to use his deadly scythed chariots (supposedly 200 of them). After observing the Persian army, Alexander began to make his final dispositions.
On the night before the battle, Parmenion and some of the other Macedonian officers urged Alexander to make a surprise night attack on the Persian camp. But the Macedonian ruler rejected the advice. In addition to the obvious difficulty of maintaining the coherence of his forces at night, Alexander gave Parmenion a more personal reason for rejecting such stealthy action: "I will not demean myself by stealing victory like a thief. Alexander must defeat his enemies openly and honestly." [Unknown to Alexander, Darius had expected such a move, and ordered his entire army to stand ready all night long. As a result, the next morning the Macedonians were well-rested, and the Persians were fatigued from lack of sleep.]
The Persian Dispositions
Alexander's army marched straight for the Persian encampment. The Persians had found a large, flat plain partially ringed by hills, with no major water course of any sort. Darius had assembled an army from all the remaining satrapies (provinces) of his empire. Some of the early historians claimed the Achaemenid force numbered up to 1 million men; that figure is surely an exaggeration. However, a more likely number is 200,000 soldiers.
Darius's army was drawn up in two long lines. The second line consisted of tens of thousands of recently levied infantrymen. These were men mainly armed with spears, short swords, and light armor (if any) and wicker shields. These soldiers were not considered to be vital to the success of Darius's battle plan, so they were likely being used as the base around which the Persian cavalry would rally. If we accept the 200,000 figure from above, then the line of Persian infantry numbered between 125,000 and 150,000 men.
The Persian front line consisted almost completely of cavalry. These squadrons of horsemen included Bactrians, Persians, Parthians, Susians, Scythians and even Indians from the western side of the Indus River. The only exceptions were some 2000 Greek mercenary hoplites in the Persian force; these men were divided in half and stationed in the front line to provide a steadying influence on the hinges of the Persian right and left wings with the center. In addition, somewhere in the center of the front line were the infamous "Immortals," 10,000 infantrymen who were considered the finest troops in the Persian army.

Achaemenid Persian Immortals, re-enactors for 2500th anniversary
Of the founding of the Persian Empire (1971)

Darius deployed his scythed chariots in front of his cavalry: 50 on the right wing, 50 in the center, and 100 on the left wing. Finally, according to one historian, he deployed 20 elephants in the center; this would be the first time the Macedonians would face these particular antagonists. To slow the expected rapid attack of the Macedonian phalanx, the Persian monarch ordered obstacles to be placed far forward of his battle front. Darius himself commanded the Persian center with his own bodyguard cavalry, his satrap Bessus (who was also Darius's cousin) was in charge of the left wing, and Mazaeus commanded the right.

The Macedonian Dispositions
Alexander had made good use of his time the day before the battle, studying the Persian army as it stood arrayed for battle as it awaited the Macedonian attack which didn't come. The king and his generals developed a set of tactics which gave his outnumbered army a good chance for victory.
Alexander deployed his spear-armed infantry in the center of his line, the phalanx, deployed in six units. These men were usually the main arm of attack of his force, but they would serve a different purpose this day. Their main weapon was the 18-21 foot-long sarissa, a spear that kept their enemy at bay. Immediately to the right of these men were the hypaspists, footmen armed similar to the classic hoplites; these soldiers were usually assigned the job of guarding the flank of the unit to their left. That unit was Alexander's personal cavalry guardsmen, the Companions. These heavily armored horsemen were often used against enemy cavalry, and could easily break an entire army. In front of the Companions were peltasts, Greek archers and javelineers, whose main job was to disrupt enemy formations.
A second line of pike-armed men, formed in a phalanx, was posted to the rear of the Macedonian main line. It was given two major tasks: to guard the Macedonian camp, which was a couple of miles to the rear; and, to act as reinforcements for the main battle line if needed.

Macedonian phalanx, 4th century BC
(Illustration courtesy of Wikipedia, & the Dept. of Military History, U.S. Military Academy)

To the right of the Companions was a combination of several units of horsemen, some mercenary Greek hoplites, and another unit of peltasts. These units collectively functioned as a guard for the right wing of the Macedonian army, and were deployed at a 45 degree angle to address any Persian attempt to outflank Alexander's army on that side. Alexander was in personal command of the entire right wing.
On the left wing – commanded by Parmenion, his most trusted officer – the Macedonians deployed two units of cavalry, another unit of Greek hoplites, and other band of peltasts to their front. The far left wing had several units of Thessalian horsemen. These men, mirroring the right flank guard, were deployed at an angle to the main Macedonian line to prevent an outflanking maneuver. According to the Roman historian Arrian – writing in the 2nd century AD – when Alexander's entire army was deployed for battle, it was no wider than the Persian center.

Part II – Battle of Gaugamela

October 1st, 2012 by Siggurdsson

 

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"Charge of the Persian Scythe Chariots at the Battle of Gaugamela" by Andre Castaigne (1898?)
(Unless otherwise indicated, all illustrations are courtesy of Wikipedia)

Today in Military History: October 1, 331 BC
After staying up into the wee hours of the night making his plans for the battle, Alexander over-slept until sometime after dawn, but awoke rested and ready for his long, strenuous day. Not long after he arose, the Macedonian monarch addressed his troops and began the initial attack.

Macedonian Companion cavalryman, 4th century BC
(Illustration courtesy of http://warandgame.com)

Alexander took his place at the head of his Companions heavy cavalry. The Companions were organized into 8 squadrons of 200 to 300 men, based on the territory in Macedon from which they were recruited. They were upper-class nobility, likely the only men who could afford the armor and weapons – as well as raising the necessary mounts – for the units. Alexander personally commanded one squadron of his own, which numbered 400 men. The Macedonian military system had developed the "hammer and anvil" concept of defeating an enemy. The phalanx would usually advance and pin the enemy in place, while the Companions were the hammer which struck the enemy's flank and dispersed them. Alexander's plan this day was a variation on this tactic.
The usual Macedonian tactic called for the entire line of the phalanx to move forward to engage the enemy. However, Alexander and his officers did not do this; instead, Alexander took his Companions, the Hypaspists, the peltasts, and his right flank guard units, and began a slow – almost leisurely – march to his right, at about a 30-degree angle from his front line. In the meantime, the remainder of his army under the command of Parmenion began its own slow advance, following behind Alexander's contingent.

Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC; First Macedonian Movement
(Illustrations courtesy of www.allempires.com)

Observing this odd battlefield behavior, King Darius was confused. In his mind, he envisioned the Macedonians marching to leave his carefully prepared terrain, possibly seeking to outflank him. His first move was to order the cavalry on his front left flank – commanded by his cousin Bessus – to attack the Greek cavalry of the right wing guard. The main cavalry unit on the Macedonian right – a mercenary unit commanded by Menidas – rushed forward in great anticipation to intercept the attacking Persians. Greatly outnumbered, the Greeks struck a quick blow, then apparently panicked and precipitously retreated. This only served to embolden the Persian horsemen, who smelled blood and charged. Then, when the dust began to clear, the Persian left suddenly found themselves confronted by the Greek hoplites, archers and javelinmen who the Greek horsemen were effectively screening. The remainder of the Macedonian right wing guard cavalry joined the melee. This fighting continued for the balance of the battle.
At the same time, Darius ordered most of his right flank horsemen to attempt to outflank the Macedonian army on its left flank, assault the main phalanx in its rear, and then attack the Macedonian camp. [In addition to the loot which the camp contained, Darius had a more personal reason for attacking Alexander's base camp. His mother Sisygambis and other members of his immediate family had been captured by Alexander 2 years earlier after the battle of Issus, and Darius hoped to "rescue" them. Alexander had treated them well, and the Queen Mother regarded the Macedonian monarch as her own son.]

Battle of Gaugamela; Persian initial attacks by cavalry and scythed chariots

In addition, the Persian King of Kings ordered his 200 scythed chariots and elephants to attack the Macedonian main phalanx. Darius believed these weapons would strike terror into the enemy and break them. However, he did not reckon with the keen mind of the Macedonian commander. Since their first encounter with these chariots at Issus, Alexander had trained his pikemen in new tactics to counter them. As the chariots on the Persian left flank approached the main phalanx, the Macedonian missilemen screening the Companions let loose with arrows, sling bullets, and javelins. These missiles took out either the horses pulling them or the crews of the chariots, rendering them harmless.
The remaining chariots approached the Macedonian line, fully expecting to impact it and cause horrifying damage and slaughter. Unfortunately for them, their enemy was one step ahead of them. As the Persian chariots came bearing down on the massed pikemen, the first few ranks of soldiers stepped to either side of the chariots, opening up a wide gap in their lines. Then, the back ranks brandished their long pikes, stopping the horses' charge. Finally, the Macedonian ranks closed, and the crews and horses were dispatched quickly. [Most of the chronicles of the battle do not say how the Persian elephants were handled, except that they were apparently all captured by the Macedonians at the battle's end.]
By this point in the fighting, the Persian right and left flank cavalry were fully engaged with the Macedonian left and right flanks. In the process, the Persian left flank cavalry had left a gap between themselves and the Persian center. Upon seeing this gap, Alexander ordered his Hypaspists and four battalions of his main phalanx to advance and attack the Persian center – which included King Darius and his bodyguards, as well as the two mercenary Greek hoplite units. At this point, Alexander made his main plan known: with his phalangists fully engaged and holding the Persians in place (the "anvil"), Alexander launched his Companion cavalry at the flank of the Persian center, after forming his horsemen into a colossal wedge (the "hammer") Trailing behind his charging cavalrymen were two units of missile troops, who would prove their worth in the coming fight.

Battle of Gaugamela; Alexander's "hammer" strikes, Persians attack Macedonian camp

The Companions, some 2500 men strong, had formed one of the most well-known formations used to attack an enemy battle line: the flying wedge. It was a triangular formation, usually starting with a single man at the tip (in this case, Alexander himself). Each successive line behind him would expand by two more men. This formation was a devastating attacking force, with few ways to counter it. Alexander's Companions smashed into the left side of the Persian center like a thunderbolt; after only a few minutes of combat, the Macedonian heavy cavalrymen began rolling up the Persian center.

Macedonian Companions in wedge formation
(Alexander is the tip of the wedge)

However, the advance of the phalanx had opened a gap in the Macedonian line, which King Darius quickly moved to exploit. He ordered two units of his horsemen to ride through this gap, and make its way to the Macedonian base camp. These Persians had little trouble accomplishing this deed, riding through the enemy reserve phalanx at the same time. They began plundering Alexander's camp, while making contact with Queen Mother Sisygambis. But, they were stunned when Sisygambis refused to accompany them, probably saying that Alexander had treated her and Darius's family members better than her own son had.
As Alexander's Companions continued to brush aside the various units of the Persian center – with Darius's bodyguard as its final goal – one unit of Persian infantry saw a chance to win some glory. They moved forward to attack the rear of the rampaging Companions. Fortunately, a unit of Agrianian peltasts moved up and intercepted the Persian infantry, preserving the integrity of the Macedonian "hammer." At about the same time – far to the rear of this great battle – as the Persians milled about the Macedonian camp, they were attacked by the reserve phalanx, and either put to flight or killed to a man.

Battle of Gaugamela; Companions roll up the Persian center, Darius flees

With his center collapsing and Macedonian heavy cavalry crashing into his flank, King Darius likely suffered a severe case of déjà vu. Two years earlier, this same scenario was played out at the battle of Issus. So, exercising the same option he did in 333, Darius and his bodyguards fled the battle. This act caused many of the recently recruited Persian infantry to panic, and they also began to retreat. One of the Persians mercenary hoplite units followed the King of Kings as he left the field of battle. To make matters worse, the remaining two units of Macedonian phalangists disengaged from the fight on the left flank and charged into the fight in the Persian center to join their fellow soldiers.

Detail from ivory carving of Darius fleeing the battle of Gaugamela
Based on a painting by Charles le Brun (1619-1690); carving's author unknown
Currently on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid

With the Macedonian phalangists and Hypaspists still engaging the remnant of the Persian center, Alexander disengaged his Companions and rode back toward his isolated right flank. Still in wedge formation, the heavy cavalrymen launched a flank attack on the remaining Persian cavalry, scattering them and causing Bessus to throw in the towel and join the general rout. Alexander was then determined to begin a pursuit of Darius, with the hope of capturing him and forcing him to recognize the Macedonian ruler as the new King of Kings of the Persian Empire.

Battle of Gaugamela; Alexander's Companions mop-up Persian left and right flanks

At this point, Alexander received a frantic message from Parmenion, saying that the Macedonian left flank was in danger of being ground up by the Persian right wing cavalry, a fight that had been going on for several hours. Alexander made a split-second decision, deciding to save the rest of his army, rather than pursue Darius and lose at least a third of his forces. Once the Companions added their weight to Parmenion's contingent, the remaining Persian cavalry took to their heels. The battle of Gaugamela was over.
Aftermath
As with most battles of antiquity, casualty figures are poor guesses at best. Alexander's army suffered the following losses:

• 100 infantry and 1000 cavalry killed or wounded (according to Arrian)
• 300 Infantry killed or wounded (according to Curtius Rufus, 1st century AD Roman historian)
• 500 infantry (according Diodorus Siculus, 1st century BC Greek historian)

Frankly, I believe the Macedonian losses were probably greater; however, I am no historian…
Persian casualties were equally inflated. Arrian claimed that over 300,000 Persians were killed "and far more were taken prisoners than were killed." Somewhat more reasonable numbers came from Curtius Rufus – claiming 40,000 casualties – and from Diodorus – citing 90,000 total casualties.
Footnote #1: Darius fled eastward towards Media, guessing correctly that Alexander would march southward toward Babylon. Darius addressed his remaining soldiers, saying he intended to form another army to contest Alexander's march. However, several of his "loyal" satraps finally had enough. Nine months later, conspirators led by his cousin Bessus took Darius, putting him in chains to temporarily keep him alive. As Alexander's mobile pursuit force approached the Persian forces, Darius was mortally wounded and his body left by the roadside. Some Greek soldiers found the former King of Kings still alive, informing Alexander of his dying condition. Unfortunately, the king arrived just as Darius expired. Alexander felt great sorrow for Darius, feeling that this was a shabby way to treat an honorable enemy. The Macedonian commander ordered Darius's body to be properly prepared and buried in the former Persian imperial capital of Persepolis.

"Alexander Covers the Body of Darius with His Cloak"
Engraving by Bernhard Rode (c. 1769)

Footnote #2: Alexander continued his conquest of the remaining portions of the Persian Empire. After invading India and intending to march even further east, his army staged a peaceful revolt, stating they missed their families and wished to go home. With no army to support his ambition, Alexander reluctantly agreed and the Macedonian army began to wend its way home. He died in June 11, 323 BC, possibly from over-indulging in undiluted wine, or possibly from typhoid fever, or possibly poisoning. On his deathbed, when asked who his successor would be, Alexander replied, "To the strongest."
Footnote #3: Eight years after Gaugamela, upon learning of the death of Alexander, Persian Queen Mother Sisygambis had herself sealed into her rooms and died of grief and starvation. There is also an asteriod – 823 Sisigambis – named for her.